ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING  FOR 

MECHANICS 


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ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING  FOR 

MECHANICS 


By    I.     P.     HI  CKS. 


A.  comprelTLensive  treatise  on  archiitectural    drawing    for  building 

meclnan.ic»,    showing    the     learner    how    to   proceed 

step  by  step  in  every  detail  of  the  work:. 


DAVID    WILLIAMS, 

232  to  238  William  Street,  New  York. 

1897. 


i^^^ 


CONTENTS 


Drawing  Instruments,   . 

Kive   Room   Cottage,  .... 

Drawing  the    Kloor   F*lans, 

Dravs^ing  the    Elevations, 

Drawing  the    Details, 
Tracing   Drawings, 

DraA^ving   a   Stone  and.    F^rame    D>A^elling, 
Lesson   in   Oiatlining, 
Hints   on.    Planning,  .  .  .  . 

Stair  Work,  .... 

Kramin^g   IPlans   and    Elevations, 
Architectural    Perspective, 
DraAiving   Perspective    Figures, 

Use  of    Hight   Lines, 
Eoreshorteniiig,       .  .  .  ,  . 

Carpenters    Tool   Chest  in    Perspective, 
Elevations   in   Perspective, 


PAGE. 

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PRKKACB. 


The  pages  which  comprise  this  work  have 
been  prepared  with  a  great  deal  of  care,  in 
the  belief  that  there  is  need  of  a  thorough 
treatise  on  architectural  drawing  for  me- 
chanics, showing  the  learner  how  to  proceed 
step  by  step  in  every  detail  of  the  work. 

The  examples  given  as  lessons  in  drawing 
embrace  a  wide  range  of  work,  and  it  has 
been  the  aim  of  the  author  to  select  only 
such  figures  for  practice  as  are  most  likely  to 
meet  the  wants  of  working  mechanics. 

The  popularity  with  which  Hicks'  Build- 
ers' Guide  has  been  received  has  brought 
many  letters  of  inquiry  which  have  been 
convincing  proof  of  the  wants  and  needs  of 
mechanics  for  a  work  of  this  kind.  No  pains 
have  been  spared  to  make  it  practical  for 
those  who  desire  to  profit  by  self  instruction. 


Every  subject  treated  has  been  made  plain 
and  easy  to  comprehend,  and  it  is  believed 
the  work  will  prove  the  keynote  to  success 
for  those  desiring  instruction  in  this  branch 
of  the  building  trade. 

To  one  seeking  information  of  a  practical 
nature,  the  selection  and  arrangement  of 
the  matter  within  these  pages  cannot  fail  to 
supply  the  student  with  a  fund  of  knowledge 
not  easily  obtained  in  any  other  work. 
Thanking  the  readers  for  their  many  kind 
and  favorable  expressions  of  the  work  as 
published  serially  in  the  columns  of  Carpen- 
try and  Building,  it  is  now  condensed  into 
convenient  space  for  guidance  and  instruc- 
tion, and  is  committed  to  their  use,  trusting 
that  it  will  be  favorably  received. 

The  Author. 

Omaha,  Neb.,  1897. 


DRAWING    INSTRUMENTS. 


The  subject  of  architectural  drawing  is  one 
of  no  small  interest  to  the  practical  mechanic 
in  whatever  branch  of  the  building  trade  he 
may  be  engaged.  Carpenters,  contractors 
and  builders  are  often  called  upon  to  furnish 
plans,  especially  of  medium  and  low  cost 
buildings  which  are  not  considered  of  suffi- 
cient importance  to  warrant  employing  the 
services  of  a  professional  architect.  It  is  in 
connection  with  this  class  of  work  that  a 
practical  knowledge  of  drawing  is  particu- 
larly valuable  to  the  building  mechanic,  for 
he  who  understands  drawing  sufficiently  to 
take  a  rough  sketch  of  a  floor  plan  and  draw 
it  up  in  practical  shape,  presenting  the  corre- 
sponding elevation  with  the  details  necessary 
to  carry  out  the  design  in  a  comprehensive 
manner,  is  the  man  who,  as  a  rule,  readily 
secures  and  retains  the  public  confidence. 
The  one  who  understands  and  can  make  the 
working  drawings  for  buildings  has  a  decided 
advantage  over  a  competitor  possessing  little 

or  no  skill  as  a  draftsman.     The  ability  to 
1 


draw  up  a  plan  after  the  manner  of  an  archi- 
tect has  the  effect  to  gain  for  the  draftsman 
the  favor  and  confidence  of  his  patrons  in  a 
way  that  seems  to  assure  them  he  under- 
stands his  business,  and  therefore  is  the  more 
competent  to  do  the  work.  Thus  in  cases 
where  competency  is  required  the  lowest  bid- 
der does  not  always  stand  the  best  chance  in 
the  race  for  a  job.  This,  and  the  fact  that  a 
knowledge  of  drawing  is  necessary  to  enable 
workmen  to  take  a  set  of  architects'  plans 
and  work  from  them  understandingly,  has 
brought  about  a  desire  on  the  part  of  many 
to  learn  the  art  of  drawing. 

A  brief  and  comprehensive  treatise  on  the 
subject,  giving  the  practical  instructions 
necessary  to  carry  the  work  to  a  successful 
issue,  has  long  been  felt  to  be  desirable. 
Many  books  and  articles  have  been  written 
on  the  subject,  but  for  the  most  part  they 
have  been  far  from  meeting  the  wants  of  car- 
penters and  contractors  engaged  in  the  gen- 
eral building  trade.     Many  have  been  disap- 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOR    MECHANICS, 


pointed  in  books,  partly  because  they  have 
not  been  as  practical  as  could  be  wished,  but 
more  especially  because  the  readers  failed  to 
put  into  practice  the  principles  and  ideas 
which  the  books   illustrated  and  described. 

In  order  to  obtain  the  full  benefit  from  a 
work  of  instruction  on  any  subject,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  verify  what  is  taught  by  practice,  and 
this  is  assuredly  the  fact  in  regard  to  draw- 
ing. Practice  is  the  most  essential  point 
toward  the '  advancement  and  success  of  the 
draftsman  in  the  art  of  drawing,  and  without 
it  the  best  books  and  articles  are  likely  to 
prove  a  failure.  It  will  not  answer  to  merely 
read  the  instructions  and  to  look  at  the  exam- 
ples given  ;  a  few  ideas  may  be  gained  by 
this  course,  but  to  acquire  the  art  and  be- 
come proficient  in  it  will  require  practice. 
It  is  the  only  successful  method  to  pursue, 
and,  therefore,  I  say  to  those  who  are  seek- 
ing instructions  in  drawing,  take  up  the  rule, 
pen  and  pencil  and  begin  practice  at  once  by 
making  the  drawings  given  in  connection 
herewith  as  lessons  in  drawing. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  illustrate  and  describe 
all  the  tools  and  appliances  used  in  drafting, 
as  this  has  been  done  time  and  again,  until 
every  carpenter  and  contractor  is  familiar 
with  them  ;  therefore,  I  will  only  describe  a 
few  of  the  most  essential  tools  and  appliances 


used  in  practice.  A  drawing  board,  i6  x  24 
inches,  will  be  large  enough  for  convenience 
in  making  the  drawings  given  as  lessons,  and 
also  large  enough  for  many  other  purposes. 
For  be  it  known  that  a  large  drawing  board 
for  small  work  is  more  or  less  inconvenient 
and  undesirable.  In  my  opinion  it  is  better 
to  have  two  or  three  sizes  to  meet  the  vary- 
ing requirements  of  large  and  small  work. 

Drawing  boards  should  be  made  of  soft 
wood,  with  all  angles  right  angles,  so  that 
the  T  square  will  work  properly  from  any 
one  of  its  four  sides.  The  T  square  is  an  in- 
dispensable tool  in  the  draftsman's  outfit,  and 
it  is  very  desirable  to  have  several  sizes.  A 
20-inch  blade  will  meet  the  requirements  of 
these  lessons,  but  in  practice  much  longer 
blades  will  often  be  required.  The  cost  of  a 
good  T  square,  20-inch  blade,  is  not  great — 
say  about  $1 — and  in  selecting  one  I  would 
suggest  Deane's  patent  adjustable  head. 
Triangles  are  very  handy  and  convenient  to 
use  in  connection  with  the  T  square  and  can 
be  employed  to  advantage  in  many  ways. 
Triangles  may  be  had  for  25  to  75  cents  each, 
according  to  size. 

In  the  way  of  other  tools  I  would  recom- 
mend a  small  case  of  German  silver  instru- 
ments of  a  good  quality,  containing  4^ -inch 
dividers,    with   pen   and   pencil    points  and 


DRAWING    INSTRUMENTS. 


8 


lengthening  bar,  drawing  pen  and  protractor, 
the  cost  of  which  does  not  need  to  exceed  $4, 
although  the  draftsman  can,  if  he  desires, 
procure  a  $15  set  of  instruments. 

Drawing  rales  are  among  the  necessities 
that  go  to  make  up  the  draftsman's  outfit, 
and  of  these  he  should  have  several  at  his 
disposal.  The  architect's  triangular  scale  is 
the  king  of  all  rules  for  setting  off  the  scale 
measurements  of  drawings,  after  which  they 
may  be  finished  by  drawing  the  lines  with 
the  aid  of  the  T  square,  triangles,  common 
rules  or  straight  edges.  I  do  not  advocate  a 
general  use  of  the  triangular  scale  with  which 
to  draw  lines,  for  the  reason  that  it  is  a  costly 
rule,  very  finely  and  accurately  marked,  and 
to  make  a  general  use  of  it  in  drawing  lines 
would  have  a  tendency  to  obscure  the  fine 
divisions  of  the  rule  and  thus  impair  its  use- 
fulness in  setting  off  accurate  measurements. 
The  rule  should  never  be  used  in  drawing 
ink  lines,  but  can  be  used  for  drawing  the 
pencil  lines  necessarily  required  in  outlining 
a  plan,  if  it  is  desirable  to  do  so.  These 
remarks  are  more  especially  to  warn  the 
draftsman  against  the  indiscreet  use  of  a 
costly  rule,  which  might  soon  impair  its  use- 
fulness or  spoil  it  entirely.  The  cost  of  tri 
angular  scales  is  from  $1.50  to  $5.  They  are 
made  in    12  inch   and    24-inch   lengths,    the 


1 2 -inch  length  being  the  one  in  general  use. 
Thus,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  draftsman's 
outfit  for  drawing  need  not  cost  more  than 
$7  to  $10.  The  drawing  boards,  T  squares, 
triangles  and  straight  edges  he  can  make  for 
himself,  thus  confining  the  expense  to  the 
case  of  instruments,  the  triangular  scale  and 
common  rules.  The  author  began  practicing 
with  a  15  cent  outfit,,  consisting  of  a  common 
rale  and  lead  pencil.  By  the  aid  of  triangles 
which  I  made  myself,  I  was  enabled  to  square 
drawings  from  the  rule,  draw  the  horizontal 
and  plumb  lines  and  finish  up  the  drawing 
comparatively  easy.  I  merely  mention  this 
so  beginners  will  not  get  the  idea  that  a 
costly  outfit  of  tools  is  required  ;  but  to  all 
who  can  afford  it  I  would  say  do  not  retard 
your  progress  in  drawing  by  trying  to  get 
along  without  the  necessary  tools,  as  it  is  a 
waste  of  time  and  poor  economy. 

In  reference  to  the  triangalar  scale,  it  is 
necessary  that  the  draftsman  should  become 
familiar  with  the  different  scales  represented. 
This  necessity  will  not  be  felt  so  much  in 
copying  the  drawings  here  given  as  lessons 
as  in  the  making  of  original  drawings.  In 
this  the  draftsman  will  soon  discover  that 
mental  calculations  are  constantly  coming  up, 
and  to  compute  the  distances  and  set  them 
off  readily  and  accurately  on  the  drawing  re- 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOR    MECHANICS. 


quires  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  drafting 
scales.  Before  proceeding  with  the  instruc- 
tions in  drawing  we  will  give  a  brief  descrip- 
tion of  the  triangular  scale  and  its  uses.  By- 
referring  to  Fig.  I  the  shape  of  the  triangular 
scale  will  be  plainly  seen.  In  shape  an  end 
section  presents  the  form  of  an  equilateral 
triangle,  traversed  lengthwise  with  a  semi- 
circular groove.  This  particular  shape  gives 
the  rule  six  planes  or  surfaces,  on  which  the 
different  scales  are  marked.  The  shape  of 
the  rule  permits  of  the  marking  being  plainly 
visible  to  the  draftsman,  and  is  specially 
adapted  for  making  the  scale  meas- 
urements of  drawings  with  the  great- 
est accuracy.  On  the  six  planes  of 
the  rule  are  marked  1 1  scales,  which 
we  will  take  in  their  regular  order. 
First  one  plane  is  graduated  to  six- 
teenths, which,  of  course,  can  be  used 
in  drafting  to  represent  the  scale  of  1-16  inch 
to  the  foot.  The  other  ten  scales  are  marked 
on  the  remaining  five  planes  in  pairs  and  in 
the  following  order,  3-32,  3-16,  }i,  %,  ^,  %, 
^,  I  inch,  lyi  inches  and  3  inches,  to  the  foot. 
Placing  the  rule  in  position  for  drawing  or 
setting  off  measurements  we  very  naturally 
use  the  opposite  edge  from  the  one  facing  us. 
This  will  be  plainly  seen  by  taking  a  rule  and 
placing  it  in  the  position  of  Fig.  i,  which  will 


bring  the  scales  of  3-32  and  3-16  in  proper 
position  by  which  to  draw  lines  and  set  off 
measurements  on  the  drawing.  When  in 
this  position  the  scale  of  3-32  inch  to  the  foot 
will  be  found  figured  on  the  plane  from  left 
to  right  and  the  scale  of  3-16  inch  to  the  foot, 
which  is  a  multiple  of  3-32,  will  be  found  fig- 
ured from  right  to  left,  in  the  semicircular 
groove  just  above  the  plane.  The  scales 
each  have  at  their  starting  point  3-32  and 
3-16  respectively,  graduated  to  sixths  and 
twelfths,  for  setting  of  fractional  parts  of  a 
foot,  as  in  representing  inches. 


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§IIMaMmMMMluliMIMiliUUMUMIiMiUin 

iiiiniRinE 


Fig.  1.— Broken  View  of  a  Triangular  Scale. 

Referring  to  Fig.  i  we  find  the  following 
scales  shown  :  At  the  left  end,  top  plane,  i  }4 
inches  to  the  foot  ;  right  end,  same  plane,  3 
inches  to  the  foot  ;  left  end,  bottom  plane,  }4 
inch  to  the  foot  and  right  end,  same  plane, 
I  inch  to  the  foot.  Thus  it  will  be  plainly 
seen  that  the  larger  scales  are  just  twice  the 
smaller,  and  being  represented  on  the  same 
planes  the  graduations  of  the  smaller  scale 
represent  halves  of  the  larger  scale  and  thu 


DRAWING    INSTRUMENTS. 


work  in  harmony  when  properly  understood 
and  applied.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  fig- 
ures of  the  ^-inch  and  i-inch  scales  appear 
wrong  side  up,  but  when  the  rule  is  turned 
end  for  end,  as  it  should  be  used  in  drawing 
by  these  scales,  the  figures  will  appear  right 
and  as  follows  :  The  ^-inch  scale  will  be 
found  figured  from  right  to  left  on  the  plane 
and  the  i-inch  scale  figured  from  left  to  right 
just  above  the  plane  in  the  semicircular 
groove.  Thus  in  setting  off  distances  by  the 
inch  scale,  if  }4  foot  was  wanted  the  drafts- 
man could  readily  locate  it  by  the  divisions  of 
the  J^-inch  scale  figured  on  the  plane.  All 
the  other  scales  on  the  rule  are  figured  in 
like  manner.  The  scales  being  figured  dif- 
ferently and  in  opposite  directions  the  liabil- 
ity of  making  mistakes  or  getting  the  scales 
mixed  is  avoided. 

In  setting  off  measurements  from  any  of 
the  scales  always  start  from  the  figure  o  of 
the  desired  scale  for  even  feet,  and  if  a  frac- 
tional part  of  a  foot  is  wanted,  count  off  such 
part  on  the  fine  divisions  of  the  scale  and 
start  from  this  point,  then  the  figures  on  the 
scale  will  represent  the  feet  and  inches.  For 
example,  the  J^ -inch  scale  has  3^  inch  gradu- 
ated as  follows  :  i.  The  long  lines  divide  the 
scale  into  fourths,  which  represent  3  inches. 
2.   The  next  longest  lines  divide  the  scale  into 


twelfths,  which  represent  inches.  3.  The 
short  lines  divide  the  scale  into  twenty - 
fourths,  which  represent  }4  inches.  Thus 
by  this  scale  the  draftsman  can  carry  his 
scale  measurements  to  a  point  indicating  j4 
inches.  Now  if  it  were  required  to  set  off  6 
fest  9  inches  by  the  scale,  count  off  9  inches 
from  the  o  mark  on  the  scale,  which  will  be 
the  third  long  line  to  the  right,  then  start 
from  this  point  with  the  measurement  and 
follow  the  scale  marked  on  the  plane  to  the 
left  to  6,  which  will  give  the  measurement  of 
6  feet  9  inches.  Proceed  in  like  manner  in 
setting  off  measurements  by  any  of  the  scales 
found  on  the  rule.  It  is  not  necessary  to  de- 
scribe the  graduations  of  all  the  scales,  as  to 
understand  the  working  of  one  is  sufficient  to 
enable  the  draftsman  to  readily  become  famil- 
iar with  the  divisions  of  them  all  as  they  all 
embody  the  same  principle,  and  it  is  just  as 
easy  to  draw  by  one  scale  as  the  other,  with 
the  exception  of  cases  where  the  fine  scales 
bring  lines  so  close  together  that  they  cannot 
be  drawn  distinctly. 

We  will  only  describe  the  graduations  of 
the  3 -inch  and  X-iiich  scales  to  show  the 
contrast  and  what  it  is  possible  to  accomplish 
with  the  scales.  The  3 -inch  scale  will  be 
found  graduated  as  follows  :  i.  The  long 
lines  divide  the  scale   into   twelfths,   which 


6 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOR    MECHANICS. 


represent  inches.  2.  The  next  longest  lines 
divide  the  scale  into  twenty-fourths,  which 
represent  half  inches.  3.  The  next  longest 
lines  divide  the  scale  into  forty-eighths, 
which  represent  quarter  inches.  4.  The 
short  lines  divide  the  scale  into  ninety-sixths, 
which  represent  eighth  inches.     Thus  by  the 


y 


Fig.  2.— Crown  Molding  and  Fascia  Drawn  to  a  Scale 
of  3  Inches  to  the  Foot. 

scale  of  3  inches  to  the  foot  the  draftsman 
can  carry  his  scale  measurements  to  a  point 
indicating  the  eighth  part  of  an  inch,  which 
is  as  fine  as  required  in  ordinary  practice. 

Referring  now  to  the  J^-inch  scale,  which 
is  the  one  generally  used  in  making  elevation 
drawings,  we  find  it  graduated  as  follows  : 
The  long  line  divides  the  scale  into  halves, 
which  represent  6  inches  ;  the  next  longest 
lines  divide  the  scale  into  quarters,    which 


represent  3  inches  ;  the  short  lines  and  finest 
divisions  of  the  scale  divide  it  into  twelfths 
and  represent  inches.  Thus  by  this  scale  the 
draftsman  can  carry  his  scale  measurements 
to  a  point  indicating  the  inches  in  elevation 
drawings,  which  is  about  as  fine  as  it  is  possi- 
ble to  draw  the  lines.  The  architects'  trian- 
gular scale  is  calculated  for  fine  work,  and 
with  it  the  finest  of  calculations  in  drawing 
can  be  made.  As  previously  shown,  the  fine 
divisions  of  the  ^-inch  scale  graduated  to 


Fig.  3.— Crown  Molding  and  Fascia  Drawn  to  a  Scale 
of  )4,  Inch  to  the  Foot. 


twelfths  make  it  possible  in  drawing  by  the 
scale  to  represent  an  inch  on  the  plan.  By 
the  division  of  %  inch  into  1 2  parts  an  inch 
would  represent  48  parts  ;  hence  one  of  these 
parts  is  really  the  forty -eighth  part  of  an 
inch,  and  comes  very  nearly,  if  not  quite, 
being  finer  than  the  ordinary  draftsman  can 
distinctly  draw  the  lines.  Thus  it  will  be 
seen  that  in  drawing  elevations  great  care 
will  be  necessary  to  keep  all  parts  in  accord- 
ance with  the  scale.  For  example,  to  repre- 
sent the  fascia  and  crown  molding  of  a  cor- 
nice in  its  usually  limited  space  requires  some 


DRAWING    INSTRUMENTS. 


fine  work.  The  space  usaally  required  for 
the  fascia  and  crown  molding  of  a  cor  - 
nice  on  the  average  dwelling  is  from  5  to  7 
inches.  In  this  case  we  will  call  it  6  inches 
to  make  it  easy  for  beginners.  According  to 
the  scale,  6  inches  would  be  represented  by 
}i  inch  in  the  drawing.  Now  we  have  only 
}i  inch  space  in  which  to  draw  the  lines 
necessary  to  represent  the  fascia  and  crown 
molding,  and  as  each  member  of  the  fascia 
and  molding  requires  a  line  to  properly  show 
its  profile,  it  would  require  at  least  five  paral- 
lel lines  to  represent  a  very  plain  fascia  and 
crown  molding.  To  draw  all  these  lines  in 
the  allotted  space  is  about  as  fine  work  as  the 
average  draftsman  is  capable  of  doing.  For 
example,  we  will  draw  the  fascia  and  mold- 
ing on  a  scale  of  3  inches  to  the  foot  in  order 
to  distinctly  show  the  different  members. 
Referring  to  Fig.  2  it  will  be  seen  that  it 


requires  i  }4  inch  space  to  show  the  profile  of 
fascia  and  molding.  To  show  all  these  lines 
in  an  elevation  in  the  small  space  of  }i  inch 
is  no  small  task,  and  this  is  only  one  example 
out  of  inany  that  arise  in  architectural  draw- 
ing. 

Fig.  3  represents  the  fascia  and  molding 
drawn  to  J^-inch  scale.  In  drawing  eleva- 
tions occasionally  a  line  is  left  out  and  slight 
deviations  are  sometimes  made.  This  is  the 
reason  details  drawn  to  larger  scales  are 
necessary,  in  order  that  the  workmen  may  be 
enabled  to  carry  out  the  design  to  the  true 
meaning  and  intent  of  the  architect.  In 
making  the  elevations  to  the  ^-inch  scale 
the  draftsman  should  work  to  the  scale  and 
keep  the  proper  proportions  as  much  as  pos- 
sible, and  such  parts  as  cannot  be  properly 
shown  in  the  elevations  should  be  represented 
in  the  details  drawn  to  larger  scales. 


A   FIVE-ROOM   COTTAGE. 


In  the  selection  of  examples  to  serve  as 
lessons  in  drawing  we  have  chosen  for  the 
subject  the  plan  of  a  five-room  cottage  of 
medium  cost.  This  selection  has  been  made 
in  view  of  the  fact  that  the  architectural  draw- 
ing of  medium  and  low  cost  dwellings  is 
much  sought  after  by  the  average  mechanic. 
To  acquire  the  art  of  making  these  drawings 
in  a  practical  manner  the  learner  must  be 
shown  how  to  proceed  step  by  step.  To 
look  at  a  finished  drawing  the  learner  may 
get  but  a  faint  idea  of  the  actual  work  and 
method  of  procedure.  The  full  benefit  of 
lessons  in  drawing  can  only  be  fully  demon- 
strated by  showing  some  of  the  work  in  dif- 
ferent stages  of  completion,  with  a  proper 
description  of  the  method  of  proceeding  from 
start  to  finish,  and  requiring  the  learner  to 
exercise  his  skill  and  talent  by  duplicating 
the  work.  The  art  can  never  be  successfully 
acquired  without  practice,  and  these  lessons 
have  been  especially  designed  to  supply  the 
much  needed  practice. 

It  has  been  the  practice  of  Carpentry  and 
Building  to  present  floor  plans  to  a  scale  of 


I -1 6  inch  to  the  foot  and  elevations  y^  inch 
to  the  foot.  These  scales  are  almost  too  fine 
for  practical  architectural  drawing,  yet  for 
publication  purposes  they  are  more  con- 
venient than  the  larger  scales.  Should  the 
floor  plans  and  elevations  accompanying 
these  lessons  appear  to  the  1-16  and  ^  inch 
scales,  it  is  specially  requested  that  in  the 
course  of  practice  the  draftsman  draw  the 
floor  plans  to  ^  or  ^  scale  and  the  eleva- 
tions to  }{  scale,  as  by  so  doing  he  will  ac- 
quire the  art  of  drawing  in  a  more  thorough 
manner,  because  he  will  be  compelled  to 
make  calculations  for  himself,  and  the  art  of 
calculating  goes  hand  in  hand  with  drawing. 
No  one  can  successfully  make  drawings  with- 
®ut  calculations.  The  division  and  propor- 
tioning of  the  scale  to  different  parts  of  the 
drawing  are  continually  going  on  ;  therefore 
to  enlarge  the  drawings  to  ^  inch  scale  will 
in  reality  give  the  draftsman  better  practice 
than  would  be  derived  by  copying  them  line 
for  line  by  the  smaller  scales.  After  the 
drawings  have  been  successfully  made  to  the 
^-inch  scale  it  would  be  well  for  the  drafts- 


A    FIVE-BOOM   COTTAGE. 

a    a 


1 

B 

A 

[ 


CELLAR 
13'x  21' 


u? 


m 


] 


s 


* 


"1 


Fig.  4.— Method  of  Drawing  Foun- 
dation Plan.— Scale,  1-16  Inch  to 
the  Foot.  ' 


Fig. 


5.— The  Foundation   Plan 
Completed. 


W 


Fipr.  (>.— Portion  of  Front  of  Main  Floor  Plan,  Showing  "Windows, 
Doors,  etc.— Scale,  H  Inch  to  the  Foot. 


Fig.  7.— Front  of  Main  Floor  Plan 
Drawn  to  a  Scale  of  1-16  Inch  to  the 
Foot. 


10 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOR    MECHANICS. 


man  to  draw  them  to  the  ^-inch  scale,  as  it 
will  have  a  tendency  to  increase  his  accuracy 
in  measuring  and  proportioning  drawings, 
while  at  the  same  time  it  will  extend  his 
capabilities  as  a  draftsman. 

The  first  practice  in  drawing  should  be 
executed  with  a  pencil,  and  it  is  quite  as  well 
not  to  attempt  the  use  of  ink  until  the  learner 
has  acquired  a  fair  knowledge  of  pencil  draw- 
ing. In  the  selection  of  pencils  never  choose 
soft  ones,  as  they  will  not  hold  a  point  fit  for 
drafting,  and  the  crumbling  of  the  lead  is 
sure  to  work  into  the  paper,  giving  the  draw- 
ing a  dirty,  grimy  appearance.  A  hard  pencil 
is  best,  as  with  it  fine  clean  lines  can  be  made. 

In  making  a  drawing  the  outlines  are  the 
first  consideration  and  should  be  made  very 
light,  so  that  in  case  an  error  occurs  it  can 
be  easily  erased.  It  is  very  likely,  and  more 
than  probable,  that  beginners  will  make 
some  miscalculations,  and  in  drawing  lines 
they  are  likely  to  draw  past  the  stopping 
points  or  cross  lines  running  on  other  angles 
and  representing  some  other  part  of  plan  or 
design.  It  is  necessary  that  the  draftsman 
watch  the  work  closely  and  acquire  the  art  of 
starting  and  stopping  at  exactly  the  right 
point.  This  is  one  important  feature  in  re- 
gard to  drawing  and  a  very  essential  one  in  re- 
gard to  pen  drawing.    After  the  outlines  have 


been  correctly  drawn  the  work  can  then  be 
traced  of  redrawn,  making  the  lines  plain  and 
distinct  and  completing  the  drawing  through- 
out in  a  permanent  manner.  In  regard  to 
paper,  it  is  unnecessary  to  have  any  particu- 
lar kind,  as  any  good  quality,  with  a  hard, 
smooth  surface  will  answer  for  ordinary  prac- 
tice, although  drawing  paper  is  preferable. 
Having  now  given  a  general  idea  of  the 
essential  points  in  drafting  we  will  proceed 
with  some  examples  for  practice,  beginning 
with  the  foundation  plan  of  a  dwelling.  The 
foundation  plan  is  the  plan  of  the  cellar 
walls,  foundation  walls,  piers,  etc.,  and  is 
usually  very  easily  made..  The  starting  point 
in  outlining  a  drawing  in  nearly  all  cases 
should  be  at  the  front  left  hand  corner  as  at 
A,  Fig.  4.  The  draftsman  should  work 
around  the  plan  from  left  to  right,  although 
it  is  not  necessary  to  adhere  strictly  to  this 
rule.  For  example,  the  draftsman  has  sev- 
eral calculations  to  make  in  outlining  the 
plan,  particularly  the  front,  which  forms 
many  angles.  Starting  at  A,  draw  the  lines 
to  B,  representing  the  front,  then  from  A 
draw  the  lines  representing  the  left  side,  rear 
and  right  side  as  A  C  D  B,  which  completes 
the  outline  of  the  foundation  wall.  The  next 
step  is  to  set  off  the  thickness  of  the  walls, 
draw  the  inside  lines  and  partition  walls  of 


A    FIVE-ROOM   COTTAGE. 


11 


the  cellar,  if  any  are  required.  The  inside 
lines  of  Fig.  4  are  so  plain  and  easily  under- 
stood that  an  explanation  is  unnecessary.  In 
drawing  the  inside  lines  the  main  point  to  ob- 
serve is  to  first  draw  all  the  lines  representing 
the  cross  walls,  making  due  allowance  for 
thickness  of  walls,  so  that  when  the  side  wall 
lines  are  drawn  the  foundation  walls  will  be 
complete.  As  a  finished  drawing  does  not 
show  the  method  of  proceeding  as  well  as 
one  partially  finished,  we  will  leave  Fig.  4  in 
its  present  form  showing  the  draftsman  how 
to  start,  how  to  proceed  and  how  to  calcu- 
late the  thickness  of  walls  in  order  to  locate 
the  starting  and  stopping  points  in  drawing 
the  lines.  Referring  to  Fig.  4  it  will  bo 
seen  that  to  complete  the  walls  all  that  is 
necessary  is  to  draw  the  lines  representing 
the  side  walls.  We  will  now  proceed  to  fin- 
ish by  locating  and  setting  off  the  chimney, 
piers,  and  girder  under  floor  joists,  cellar 
window  frames,  cellar  stairs  and  piers  for 
porches.  This  being  done  the  drawing  has 
the  appearance  of  Fig.  5  and  completes  the 
foundation  plan.  Girders  under  floor  joists 
are  generally  represented  by  dotted  lines,  as 
shown.  Our  floor  plan  and  front  elevation 
show  two  chimneys,  but  as  one  is  intended  to 
start  from  brackets  on  the  partition  wall  only 
one  will  appear  on  foundation  plan  as  drawn. 


Great  care  should  be  given  to  locating  chim- 
neys, so  that  they  can  be  built  plumb  from 
their  foundation  to  the  finish.  In  many  large 
cities  there  is  an  ordinance  prohibiting  the 
building  of  crooked  chimneys  in  any  form. 

In  order  to  explain  a  few  points  in  regard 
to  doors,  windows,  etc.,  we  will  present  a 
portion  of  the  front  wall  of  the  floor  plan 
drawn  to  a  scale  of  j{  inch  to  the  foot.  Re- 
ferring to  Fig.  6,  windows  are  usually  de- 
signated by  two  lines  drawn  through  the 
opening,  as  shown  at  W  ;  outside  doors  are 
represented  by  one  line  usually  drawn  on  the 
outside  wall  line,  as  shown  at  D.  The  way 
a  door  is  intended  to  swing  is  designated  by 
a  line  drawn  on  an  angle,  as  shown.  Inside 
doorways  are  represented  by  open  spaces  in 
the  partitions  with  no  lines  across.  The  angle 
lines  are  frequently  used  when  the  draftsman 
wishes  to  specifically  indicate  which  way  the 
doors  shall  swing.  Arches  are  indicated  by 
dotted  lines  across  the  opening,  as  shown  at 
the  bay  window.  Fig.  6.  They  are  also 
usually  marked  "  arch,"  as  shown. 

To  contrast  the  difference  between  an 
architect's  working  scale  drawing  and  one  as 
usually  prepared  for  publication,  the  reader 
is  referred  to  Fig.  7,  which  shows  the  front 
wall  of  the  floor  plan  drawn  to  a  scale  of  1-16 
inch  to  the  foot. 


12 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOR    MECHANICS. 


DRAWING  THE  FLOOR  PLANS, 

As  the  draftsman  has  now  been  given  an 
explanation   of  the   primary   principles  and 
method  of  drawing  plans,  we  will  presume  he 
is  ready  to  advance  another  step  in  the  art, 
and  we  will  proceed  to  the  floor  plan  in  full. 
Referring  to  Fig.  8,   first  draw  the  outside 
wall  line,  set  off  the  thickness  of  walls,  locate 
the  joining  partition   walls,    and  draw   the 
lines,    as    shown.     Having    the    wall    lines 
drawn,  the  next  step  is  to  locate  the  doors, 
windows,  chimneys,   etc.,   which  are  repre- 
sented by  the  short  marks  across  the  parti- 
tions.    It  will  be  noticed  that  in  drawing  the 
partition  lines  they  have  been  drawn  across 
the  door  openings,  and  also  some  of  the  lines 
cross  at  the  junction  of  partitions  where  they 
ought  not  to.     The  advantage   of   drawing 
them  this  way  in  outlining  will  be  plainly 
seen,  for  by  having  the  outlines  of  all  the 
partitions  in   sight  the  draftsman  is  better 
able  to  make  calculations  and  locate  doors, 
windows  and  chimneys  in  the  most  desirable 
manner.     It   should   be   remembered,    how- 
ever, that  the  outlines  are  to  be  drawn  lightly 
with  a  pencil,  then  when  we  are  ready  to  fin- 
ish we  can  easily  erase  all  superfluous  lines, 
thus  showing  just  where  to  start  and  stop 
when  drawing  permanently  with  the  pencil 
or  pen.     This  can  be  done  a  great  deal  easier 


and  quicker  than  to  make  all  the  calculations 
before  drawing  the  outlines  ;  besides  there 
are  often  several  doors  and  partitions  in  suc- 
cession to  cause  confusion  in  locating  exactly 
the  points  of  starting  and  stopping. 

We  will  now  take  Pig.  8,  and  erasing  the 
lines  across  the  door  openings  and  joining 
partition  walls  will  finish  permanently,  when 
it  will  have  the  appearance  of  Fig.  9.  By 
comparing  Fig.  8  with  Fig.  9  the  draftsman 
will  be  able  to  note  the  change  that  has  taken 
place  in  the  lines  better  than  words  can  ex- 
press it.  In  addition  to  the  change  made  by 
the  openings  we  have  drawn  a  few  more 
lines,  finishing  the  stairs,  sink,  etc. ,  and  indi- 
cating the  shelves  in  pantry  and  closets, 
making  the  plan  complete. 

In  Fig.  10  is  shown  the  method  of  drawing 
the  roof  plan.  The  inside  lines  represent 
the  outside  line  of  wall  plate  and  should  be 
drawn  first.  Next  set  off  the  width  of  the 
cornice  and  draw  the  outside  lines.  Locate 
the  hips,  valleys,  ridges  and  chimneys  and 
finish  complete,  as  shown. 

DRAWING    THE    ELEVATIONS. 

In  the  usual  course  of  architectural  draw- 
ing the  elevations  come  next,  and  very  natu- 
rally they  are  the  most  complicated  of  all  to 
make  and  appear  as  an  insurmountable  diffi- 


A    FIVE-ROOM   COTTAGE. 


18 


I        I. 


D 


D  [ 


I  I. 


I  I 


I  I 


T r 


D 


1         g 


I       I 


Fig.  8.— Method  of  Outlining  the  Floor  Plan.— Scale,  J6  Inch  to  the  Foot. 


14 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOR    MECHANICS. 


Fig.  9.— Appearance  of  Floor  Plan  when  Completed.— Scale,  %  Inch  to  the  Foot. 


A    FIVE-ROOM    COTTAGE 


15 


Fig.  10.— Showing  Method  of  Drawing  the  Roof  Plan.— Scale,  H  Inch  to  the  Foot. 


16 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOR    MECHANICS. 


culty  to  beginners  in  the  practice  of  drawing. 
As  a  rule,  all  things  become  easy  or  compara- 
tively so  when  we  know  how  to  proceed,  and 
with  proper  instructions  we  hope  those  who 
desire  will  be  able  to  readily  master  the 
difficulties  usually  met  with.  We  will  now 
start  on  the  outlines  of  the  front  elevation, 
Fig.  II.  Some  may  prefer  to  start  from 
bottom  of  the  foundation  and  build  up,  but 
we  have  found  it  more  practical  in  drawing 
elevations  to  take  the  bottom  Une  of  the  sill 
as  a  starting  point  from  which  to  make  the 
required  calculations.  It  is  always  easier  to 
calculate  hights  in  an  elevation  from  bottom 
of  sill  up,  especially  frame  buildings,  and  for 
the  hight  of  foundation  it  is  no  trouble  to 
calculate  from  the  bottom  of  the  sill  to  any 
hight  it  is.  desired  the  foundation  should 
show  above  the  ground  line.  Hence  we  will 
take  the  bottom  line  of  sill  as  a  starting  point 
and  draw  the  line  A  B.  Set  off  on  line  A  B 
the  width  of  front  gable,  as  A  C.  Calculate 
the  entire  hight  from  bottom  of  sill  to  top  of 
roof  line,  as  shown  by  the  scratch  marks  D, 
E  and  F,  and  draw  the  perpendicular  lines 
A  D,  C  E  and  B  F,  representing  the  main 
comers,  but  do  not  draw  them  quite  to  the 
point  D,  E  and  F,  as  these  were  calculated  to 
the  top  of  roof  line,  and  the  lines  of  the  cor- 
nice must  come  below  these  points.     It  is 


easier  and  more  practical  to  finish  drawings 
from  the  top  down,  and  when  the  lines  rep- 
resenting the  cornice  are  drawn  they  will  in- 
tersect the  perpendicular  lines  of  the  main 
corners  in  the  elevation.  This  will  be  read- 
ily seen  by  comparing  the  unfinished  work  of 
Fig.  II  with  the  finished  part  of  Fig.  12.  It 
will  be  noticed  that  if  the  perpendicular  lines 
were  drawn  full  to  the  scratch  marks  we 
would  have  to  cross  these  lines  to  finish  the 
cornice,  which,  of  course,  would  not  be  a 
proper  thing  to  do.  For  convenience  in  out- 
lining, the  lines  can  be  drawn  lightly  with  a 
pencil  and  in  full  to  the  points  D,  E,  F,  and 
the  part  where  the  lines  cross  can  be  erased 
before  finishing.  This  is  a  good  way  to  do, 
as  it  shows  the  draftsman  just  where  to  start 
and  stop  when  inking  or  tracing  the  drawing 
permanently.  The  points  D,  E,  F  are  also 
the  points  from  which  to  calculate  the  roof 
elevation,  the  amount  for  projection  being 
added  on  at  the  bottom,  as  shown.  After 
drawing  the  outline  of  roof  locate  and  draw 
the  outline  of  the  chimneys.  The  latter  can 
always  be  readily  located  from  the  floor  plan. 
For  example,  the  front  chimney  passes  out  the 
roof  by  the  side  of  the  left  wall  plate,  while 
the  kitchen  chimney  passes  out  the  roof 
about  7  feet  from  the  outside  line  of  the  right 
wall   plate,   which  locates  it  where   shown. 


A    FIVE-ROOM   COTTAGE. 


17 


Chimneys  that  do  not  come  out  the  highest 
portion  of  a  roof  should  always  be  con- 
structed somewhat  taller  than  the  ordinary 
chimney  to  insure  them  a  good  draft,  and 
also  for  the  protection  of  the  roof  against 
fire.  It  sometimes  happens  that  roofs  affect 
the  draft  of  chimneys,  hence  the  top  of  a 
chimney  should  be  nearly  as  high  as  the  roof 
through  which  it  passes.  Observe  that  the 
front  chimney  top  is  about  on  a  level  with 
the  front  gable  roof  and  the  kitchen  chimney 
a  little  above  the  comb  of  the  main  roof. 
Chimneys  which  extend  above  the  roof  much 
more  than  the  ordinary  hight  should  have  an 
anchor  rod  put  in,  as  shown.  The  next  step 
is  to  set  off  the  width  and  hight  of  bay  win- 
dow from  bottom  of  sill  to  lower  edge  of 
fascia.  Set  off  width  of  crown  molding  and 
fascia,  pitch  of  roof,  and  draw  the  lines  as 
shown. 

Next  set  off  the  outlines  of  the  small  win- 
dow in  the  gable.  In  setting  off  the  outlines 
of  a  window  or  door  compute  the  extreme 
width  and  length,  including  casings,  sill  and 
cap,  and  draw  the  outside  lines  as  shown.  It 
is  more  practical  to  finish  a  frame  from  the 
outside,  working  toward  the  center,  than  any 
other  way.  The  drawing  of  doors  and  win- 
dows will  be  more  fully  illustrated  and  ex- 
plained in  the  details. 


The  next  step  will  be  to  outline  the  porch, 
which  in  all  cases  should  be  done  before 
drawing  the  outlines  of  any  doors  or  windows 
that  appear  under  cover  of  the  porch,  because 
it  very  often  happens  that  a  portion  of  a  door 
or  window  frame  is  partially  concealed  from 
view  by  some  portion  of  the  porch  ;  hence 
the  only  proper  method  is  to  draw  the  porch 
first.  Then,  when  the  frames  are  drawn  it 
will  be  plainly  seen  just  what  portion,  if  any, 
of  them  will  be  hid  from  view,  and  there  will 
be  no  occasion  for  crossing  lines.  In  most 
cases  the  bottom  of  the  porch  frieze  hides  the 
view  of  the  head  casings  of  frames  that  ap- 
pear under  cover  of  the  porch.  This  feature 
is  noticeable  in  almost  every  elevation  of 
house  design,  and  there  seems  to  be  no  avail- 
able remedy  for  it.  The  only  plan  would  be 
to  make  the  porches  higher,  and  this  cannot 
always  be  done  for  lack  of  space,  and,  again, 
extremely  high  porches  look  out  of  propor 
tion  and  are  equally  as  bad,  if  not  worse, 
than  hiding  the  head  casings  with  the  porch 
frieze.  In  the  elevation  the  porch  frieze 
covers  the  head  casing,  as  will  be  plainly 
seen  by  referring  to  Fig.  12,  which  shows 
the  work  in  a  more  finished  state.  The  next 
step  will  be  to  set  off  the  hight  of  foundation. 
Draw  the  ground  line,  space  off  the  number 
of  risers  required  and    draw  porch    steps. 


18 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOR    MECHANICS. 


Czz] 


Fig.    11.— Method   of    Outlining  Front  Elevation.— Scale,   %  Inch         Fig.  12.— The  Front  Elevation  Partially  Finished.— Scale,   %  Inch 
to  the  Foot.  to  the  Foot. 


A    FIVE-ROOM    COTTAGE. 


19 


Fig.  13.— Appearance  of  Front  Elevation  when  Completed.— Scale 
^  Inch  to  the  Foot. 


FijT.  14.— Sectional  View  of  Framing 
and  Foundation.— Scale,  14  Inch  to 
the  Foot. 


30 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOR    MECHANICS. 


The  three  parallel  lines  full  length  indicate 
the  base  and  water  table,  which  extend 
around  the  elevation  on  a  line  with  the 
porch,  as  shown. 

Trusting  that  a  fair  idea  has  now  been 
given  of  the  method  of  outlining  and  starting 
the  elevation,  we  will  next  proceed  to  carry 
the  work  on  to  a  more  advanced  stage  of 
completion.  Having  made  the  outlines  as  in 
Fig.  II,  proceed  by  drawing  the  gutter  on 
the  roof  and  finish  off  the  hips.  Next  draw 
the  lines  representing  the  crown  molding  and 
fascia  of  the  main  cornice.  Draw  the  gable 
ornaments,  then  the  line  representing  bottom 
of  frieze,  and  finish  corner  casings  down  to 
water  table  line,  as  shown.  Next  finish  the 
attic  window.  The  bay  window  will  be  next 
in  order.  Finish  the  lines  of  the  crown  mold- 
ing, fascia  and  frieze.  Draw  the  corner  and 
middle  casings  down  to  water  table  line. 
Set  off  and  draw  window  sills  and  finish  by 
drawing  window  casings,  sash  and  panels 
tinder  windows. 

Next  we  will  take  the  porch  and  front 
door.  Draw  the  lines  representing  the  crown 
molding,  frieze  and  columns,  and  finish  the 
door  frame,  as  shown.  We  will  omit  some 
of  the  details  of  the  porch  and  bay  window 
finish  in  this  drawing,  leaving  the  balance  of 
the  work  for  the  drawing  as  it  will  appear 


when  finished.  It  is  better  for  beginners  to 
see  the  work  at  different  stages  of  comple- 
tion, as  it  gives  far  better  ideas  of  the  method 
of  proceeding. 

The  next  step  will  be  to  show  the  work  in 
a  finished  state  by  taking  Fig,  12  as  we  have 
just  left  it  and  proceeding  step  by  step  to  the 
finish,  when  it  will  have  the  appearance  of 
Fig.  13.  In  finishing  begin  at  the  top  and 
work  down.  Chimneys  are  usually  the  up- 
permost portions  of  drawings,  although  there 
are  many  exceptions  in  this  particular.  In 
this  case  finish  the  chimneys  down  to  the 
roof  line  to  represent  the  brick.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  accurately  scale  every  course  of 
brick  unless  the  chimney  is  of  some  special 
artistic  design,  in  which  case  it  would  be 
necessary  to  have  a  detail  drawing  of  it  show- 
ing its  entire  construction.  On  common 
chimneys  the  size  and  total  hight  are  ob- 
served in  the  drawing,  the  architect  puts  in 
a  few  lines  to  indicate  the  brick,  and  that 
usually  finishes  a  chimney.  We  will  now 
finish  the  roof.  Begin  at  the  top  and  make 
parallel  lines  to  represent  the  roof.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  scale  the  lines  to  represent  the 
exact  number  of  courses  of  shingles.  It  is 
usually  understood  and  specified  that  the 
shingles  shall  be  laid  a  stated  amount  to  the 
weather.     If  there  are  any  belt  courses  of 


A    FIVE-ROOM    COTTAGE. 


21 


ornamental  shingles,  then  there  should  be  a 
detail  of  the  roof  drawn  to  a  suitable  scale. 
Next  finish  bay  window  and  porch  roofs  and 
finish  down  to  the  foundation,  putting  in  the 
brackets  and  all  ornamental  finish,  as  shown. 
The  siding  comes  next,  and  should  be  spaced 
according  to  the  scale  as  nearly  as  practicable 
what  it  is  to  be  laid  to  the  weather.  If  pos- 
sible always  space  to  come  out  even  at  bottom 
and  top  of  frames.  In  drawing  the  lines  con- 
siderable care  will  have  to  be  given  the  work 
in  order  not  to  draw  across  casing  lines, 
porch  columns  and  other  parts  of  the  finish. 
Drawing  the  siding  lines  is  good  practice  ;  it 
aids  very  much  to  insure  accuracy  in  starting 
and  stopping  at  just  the  right  points. 

The  next  and  last  step  is  to  finish  the 
foundation  down  to  the  ground  line.  In  this 
case  we  have  drawn  the  foundation  of  stone, ' 
which  is  usually  represented  by  somewhat 
irregular  lines,  as  shown.  We  have  now 
finished  the  front  elevation,  giving  it  the 
general  appearance  of  Fig.  13. 

We  present  in  the  next  illustration,  which 
is  Fig.  14,  a  sectional  view  of  the  house, 
showing  the  size  of  timber,  manner  of  fram- 
ing, hight  of  cellar,  hight  of  foundation  above 
grade,  hight  of  main  story  and  attic.  This 
drawing  is  so  plain  and  easily  understood 
that  only  a  brief  description  is  necessary. 


Taking  A  as  a  starting  point,  draw  the  bot- 
tom line  of  sill,  then  computing  the  hight  of 
cellar  and  hight  of  frame  to  top  of  plate, 
draw  the  outside  wall  line  from  bottom  of 
cellar  to  top  of  plate.  Set  off  and  draw  out- 
line of  rafter  from  the  plate.  Next  set  off 
thickness  of  timbers  and  draw  in  the  follow- 
ing order  :  Sill,  outside  wall  studding,  rafter, 
ceihng  joist  and  collar  beam.  Set  off  the 
thickness  of  the  cellar  wall  with  proper  foot- 
ing, hight  above  groimd  line,  and  draw  the 
lines  as  shown.  Mark  the  hights  of  cellar, 
ceiling,  attic  and  of  headers  to  window  open- 
ings, as  shown  in  the  outside  wall.  The  front 
elevation  was  given  at  considerable  length, 
showing  every  detail  from  start  to  finish,  but 
we  do  not  intend  to  go  into  the  matter  so 
thoroughly  in  regard  to  the  side  elevation. 
We  have  given  the  method  of  proceeding, 
and  now  present  Fig.  15,  showing  the  side 
elevation  as  it  would  appear  in  a  finished 
state,  hoping  that  those  of  the  readers  who 
may  be  considered  as  students  in  drafting 
will  accept  it  as  an  example  for  practice  and 
draw  it  to  the  best  of  their  ability  after  the 
manner  described  in  connection  with  the 
front  elevation. 

To  aid  the  draftsman  in  making  the  side 
elevation  we  have  just  a  little  in  the  way  of 
information  to  offer.     After  having  the  paper 


22 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOR    MECHANICS. 


S 


■  I   '  '   I' 
i    !|        ' 


1 


I      ,     i     ,     I     .     I     ,     I      ,     I     .     I     ,     I     ,     I      .     I      .     I     .     I     .     <     .     t     .     1     .     1     .     I      .     I      .    i 


^& 


Rg,  15.— Appearance  of  Side  (Right)  Elevation  Completed.— Scale,  %  Inch  to  the  Foot. 


A  FIVE-ROOM  COTTAGE. 


23 


fastened  on  the  drawing  board  place  the 
front  elevation  on  it  and  to  the  right,  so  that 
the  T-square  will  reach  across  both  drawings. 
The  result  of  this  is  that  it  establishes  the 
hights  for  many  parts  of  the  side  elevation 
and  they  can  be  transferred  without  making 
so  many  measurements.     For  example  :  The 


hights  of  porch,  bay  window,  foundation, 
roof,  chimneys  and  many  other  parts  will  all 
appear  the  same  whether  we  look  at  the 
front  elevation  or  the  side  elevation  and 
consequently  certain  parts  may  be  more 
accurately  transferred  in  the  manner  above 
described. 


DRAWING  DETAILS   OF  A  MODERATE   COST   COTTAGE. 


The  next  lessons  for  practice  will  be  with 
the  details,  which  are  portions  of  the  eleva- 
tions drawn  to  larger  scales  to  aid  the  me- 
chanic in  carrying  out  the  design,  and  are 
usually  such  parts  as  cannot  be  properly 
shown  in  the  elevation.  Some  of  these  de- 
tails will  serve  as  the  very  best  of  lessons  for 
practice,  therefore  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  the 
learner  will  give  his  best  attention  to  the  in- 
structions that  follow.  We  will  now  consider 
the  details  of  a  window  frame  for  a  two-light 
window,  24  X  $6,  casings  to  be  5  inches  wide, 
with  molded  head  casing  and  cap,  scale  }4 
inch  to  the  foot.  Referring  to  Fig.  16  we 
first  draw  the  outlines,  then  set  off  the  thick- 
ness of  the  sill,  width  of  molded  cap  and  the 
casing  lines. 

The  parallel  line  which  extends  around  the 
inside  of  the  frame  next  to  the  casing  line 
represents  the  blind  stop,  and  at  the  bottom 
of  the  frame  it  is  the  subsill.  Next  set  off 
the  thickness  of  sash,  as  shown.  The  two 
narrow  inside  lines  represent  the  glass  and 
putty  lines.  The  division  line  of  the  sash 
extends  across  the  frame  from  the  blind  stop 
lines.     We  have  left  Fig.  16  partially  finished 


in  order  to  show  more  clearly  the  manner  of 
proceeding.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  per- 
pendicular lines  of  the  sash  have  been  omit- 
ted. This  has  been  done  in  order  to  show 
that  after  the  outlines  of  the  frame  are  made 
the  next  thing  in  order  is  to  draw  all  the  hori- 
zontal lines,  or  at  least  all  that  can  be  con- 
veniently drawn,  finishing  the  perpendicular 
lines  last.  Fig.  17  shows  the  frame  as  it 
appears  in  a  finished  state.  It  would  be  im- 
possible to  correctly  represent  all  the  lines  of 
this  drawing  in  an  elevation  drawn  to  X-inch 
scale,  and  in  elevation  drawings  the  fine  lines 
are  usually  left  out.  The  blind  stop  lines  are 
frequently  drawn,  but  not  necessarily  re- 
quired in  the  elevations.  In  Fig.  1 7  we  have 
drawn  all  the  lines  to  show  how  a  frame  and 
window  should  appear  when  correctly  com- 
pleted. 

Fig.  18  represents  the  front  door  and  frame 
partially  drawn.  Fig.  19  shows  the  work 
finished.  The  drawings  indicate  so  plainly 
the  method  of  proceeding  and  being  similar 
to  what  has  already  been  described,  with 
reference  to  Figs.  16  and  17,  that  further  de- 
scription is  unnecessary. 


2i 


DRAWING    DETAILS    OF   A    MODERATE    COST    COTTAGE. 


yig-.  16.— Outline  Indicating  Method  of  Draw- 
ing Window  and  Frame.— Scale,  }4  Inch  to 
the  Foot. 


Fig.  17.— The  Window  and  Frame  Completed 
—Scale,  3^  Inch  to  tUe  Foot. 


36 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOR    MECHANICS. 


Fig.  18.— Method   of  Drawins:  Front  Door 
and  Frame. 


Fig.  19.— The  Door  and  Frame  Completed. 
Scale,  \'i  Inch  to  the  Foot, 


DRAWING    DETAILS    OF   A    MODERATE    COST    COTTAGE. 


27 


A  detail  of  the  bay  window  drawn  to  a 
scale  of  ^-inch  to  the  foot  is  shown  in  Fig. 
20  of  the  engravings.  The  description  and 
method  of  drawing  the  bay  window  was  so 
thoroughly  explained  in  connection  with  the 
front  elevation  that  by  comparing  Fig.  20 
with  Fig's.  II  and  12  the  draftsman  will 
readily  understand  the  course  to  be  pursued. 
A  vertical  sectional  view  drawn  to  JE^^-inch 
scale,  which  will  serve  as  an  example  for 
practice,  is  shown  in  Fig.  21. 

We  will  not  give  any  prescribed  method  in 
drawing  this  figure,  believing  that  it  is  just 
as  well  sometimes  for  the  student  to  study 
the  drawing  and  work  out  the  method  of  pro- 
cedure for  himself.  In  explanation  of  the 
meaning  of  some  of  the  lines  we  will  say  that 
the  outside  space  represents  the  middle  or 
comer  casings,  the  second  space  the  outside 
window  casings,  third  space  the  sheeting, 
fourth  space  the  studding,  the  fifth  space  the 
plastering  and  the  sixth  space  the  inside  cas- 
ing. The  sections  representing  the  headers, 
head  casings,  sills,  etc.,  are  plain  and  easily 
understood.  Fig.  22  represents  a  horizontal 
section,  drawn  to  a  scale  of  i  inch  to  the  foot, 
and  shows  very  plainly  the  sections  of  the 
work  through  the  bay  window.  In  the  en- 
graving M  C  indicates  the  middle  casing, 
O  C  the  outside  casing,  B  the  blind  stop,  J 


the  jamb  and  I  C  the  inside  casing.  The 
other  parts  are  fully  explained  by  the  word- 
ing. Fig.  23  is  a  detail  of  porch  finish, 
drawn  to  a  scale  of  i  inch  to  the  foot,  and  is 
so  plain  that  little  description  will  suffice. 
The  ornaments  in  the  frieze  and  comer 
bracket  are  simply  open  spaces.  The  par- 
ticular point  in  this  drawing,  to  which  it  is 
desired  to  call  the  attention  of  the  draftsman, 
is  the  side  and  face  views  of  the  cornice 
bracket  and  the  manner  of  showing  the  dif- 
ference in  appearance.  Figs.  24  and  25  are 
details  of  the  main  cornice  and  of  the  work 
in  the  front  gable,  drawn  to  a  scale  of  i  inch 
to  the  foot,  and  need  no  further  explanation. 
They  will  serve  as  examples  for  practice  in 
drawing  details. 

A  detail  of  the  inside  finish,  drawn  to  a 
scale  of  i^  inches  to  the  foot  and  showing 
the  face  and  sections  of  base,  plinth  block, 
casing  and  comer  block,  is  presented  in  Fig. 
26.  We  have  now  completed  the  details  of 
our  house  plan,  but  before  concluding  our 
lessons  in  drawing  we  wish  to  give  a  few 
examples  for  practice,  to  represent  a  class  of 
work  that  has  not  been  shown.  Fig.  27  rep- 
resents the  shingling  of  a  gable  with  round 
and  octagon  butt  shingles,  drawn  to  a  scale 
of  }4  inch  to  the  foot.  To  execute  such  de- 
signs on  a  small  scale  is  a  very  difficult  task. 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOR    MECHANICS. 


^\N      U\N\VS-N^ 


|-^Vnv.       I^xsn-      |ix.-~-\\-.    f-^^s. 


I  ^^;^^^^^~  /-^;;sr~t^v     |-J;^»>^:^.^  | 


■""S^- 


■^-^^^^yc^-^  h^\^  h^^*^  l^ssSNv-  |».\v  |^-\\\\v  |\\^ 


^-<x>y  ( s-N-^^-xx,V  i^^^^rj; 


h-  h^^-  h  -  h- 


•^^^sN\\"    KV!x 


Jl 


Fig.  30.— Detail  of  Bay  Window.— Scale,  M  Inch 
to  the  Foot. 


Fig.  21.— Vertical  Section  of 
Bay  Window,  Showing  Gen- 
eral Construction.— Scale,  J4 
Inch  to  the  Foot. 


DRAWING    DETAILS    OF   A    MODERATE    COST   COTTAGE. 


29 


The  method  of  dfawing  may  be  described  as 
follows  :  After  making  the  outlines  of  the 
finish  down  to  the  space  required  for  shin- 
gles, space  and  draw  lightly  the  lines  repre- 
senting the  courses.  Then,  for  the  round 
butts,  draw  lines  to  use  as  centers  in  describ- 
ing the  circular  lines,  as  shown  by  dotted 
lines  in  the  engraving.  For  the  octagon 
butts  draw  lines  representing  the  depth  of 
the  octagon  cut,  as  shown  by  dotted  lines, 


M.C. 


Pig.  22.— Horizontal  Section  of  Bay  Window,  Showing  Casings 
and  General  Construction.— Scale,  1  Inch  to  the  Foot. 

and  finish  as  indicated,  drawing  the  perpen- 
dicular lines  last.  After  this  has  been  done 
erase  the  superfluous  pencil  marks  and  trace 
the  drawing  permanently.  A  more  expedi- 
tious and,  perhaps,  a  better  method  to  pursue 
with  such  work  is  to  make  patterns  showing 
the  profile  of  the  bottom  line  of  courses,  as 
shown  by  Figs.  28  and  29.  These  patterns 
can  be  made  of  thin  sheet  brass,  or  even  of 
cardboard,  and  will  be  found  a  great  help  in 


regard  to  speed  as  well  as  in  keeping  the 
work  uniform.  There  are  many  small  pat- 
terns of  this  kind  that  can  be  made  to  do 
good  service  in  the  way  of  helps  and  aids  in 
drafting. 

Fig.  30  shows  an  octagon  plan  of  a  bay 
window,  and  Fig.  31  the  elevation,  drawn  to 
a  scale  of  %  inch  to  the  foot.  Figs.  30  and 
31  have  been  presented  with  a  view  of  show- 
ing how  to  give  a  drawing  the  octagon  ap- 
pearance. This  bay  window  is  of  the  same 
general  style  as  the  square  one  previously 
shown,  with  but  few  exceptions.  In  this  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  window  sill  miters 
around  the  comers  and  the  corner  casings 
extend  from  frieze  to  sill  and  from  sill  to 
water  table,  instead  of  extending  from  frieze 
to  water  table,  as  shown  in  Fig.  20.  It  will 
be  noticed  that  the  side  rail  of  the  sash  on 
the  side  windows  does  not  show  on  the  side 
next  to  the  middle  window.  The  reason  for 
this  is  obvious  when  the  plan  is  properly 
considered.  Looking  at  an  octagon  bay 
window  squarely  from  the  front  the  casings 
of  the  frame  hide  this  portion  of  the  sash. 
In  representing  the  brackets  the  draftsman 
has  a  regular  picnic,  and  it  is  no  small  task 
to  do  the  work  properly.  As  will  be  seen  by 
referring  to  the  elevation,  we  have  three 
views  of  the  brackets.     Directly  in  front  we 


LlBn^ 


UNIVERSITY 
Of  „.T:Tr_,„i 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOR    MECHANICS. 


Pigr.  24.— Detail  of  Main  Cornice.— Scale,  1  Inch 
to  the  Foot. 


Figr.  23.— Detail  of  Porch  Finish.— Scale,  1  Inch  to  the  Foot. 


DRAWING    DETAILS    OF   A    MODERATE    COST    COTTAGE. 


81 


Pigr.  25.— Detail  of  Gable  Finish— Scale,  1  Inch  to  the  Foot. 


Fig.  26.— Detail  of  Inside  Finish,  Showingr 
Faces  and  Sections  of  Base  Board,  Plinth 
Block,  Casing  and  Corner  Block.— Scale, 
IJ^g  Inches  to  the  Foot. 


32 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOR    MECHANICS. 


get  a  face  view,  while  next  to  either  side  we 
get  kind  of  a  half -face  and  half -side  view. 
To  the  extreme  right  or  left  corner  we 
would  get  a  full  side  view  of  the  bracket 
were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  it  is  partially- 
concealed  by  one  of  the  side  brackets.  This 
drawing  shows  that  there  is  a  great  study  in 
architectural  drawing  and  that  much  depends 
upon  the  judgment  and  skill  of  the  drafts- 
man. In  fact,  there  are  many  things  that 
come  up  in  drafting  that  are  very  difficult  to 
represent  on  paper.  The  draftsman  has  to 
form  an  idea  of  how  the  drawing  should  look 
to  represent  certain  things  ;  then  study  how 
to  draw  them,  and  lastly  and  most  essen- 
tially, practice  the  art. 

TRACING    DRAWINGS. 

We  will  now  give  a  few  instructions  in 
regard  to  tracing  drawings  with  ink.  First, 
the  draftsman  wants  a  rule  specially  pre- 
pared for  the  work.  Any  common  rule  can 
be  prepared  for  the  purpose  in  a  few  min- 
utes. Fig.  32  shows  the  shape  of  rule  as 
used  with  the  drawing  pen,  the  same  to  be 
used  with  the  beveled  edge  down.  The  idea 
of  this  is  to  prevent  the  rule  touching  the 
paper  at  the  very  edge  of  the  ink  line. 
When  the  rule  and  ink  line  touch  the  paper 
at  exactly  the  same  point,  it  is  very  difficult 


to  move  the  rule  without  making  blots.  The 
rule  slightly  beveled  and  used  in  the  manner 
above  described  is  a  sure  preventive  to  blot- 
ting the  work  if  anything  like  ordinary  care 
is  exercised. 

In  regard  to  the  position  of  the  pen  it 
should  be  held  with  the  flat  side  of  one  of 
the  nibs  to  the  rule,  and  very  nearly  in  a 
perpendicular  position.  The  ink  commonly 
employed  is  Higgins'  American  drawing 
ink,  prepared  ready  for  use.  This  ink  dries 
quickly,  the  lines  can  be  made  very  close 
together,  and  the  rule  moved  around  over 
the  paper  almost  as  fast  as  desired.  The 
draftsman  seldom  has  to  wait  more  than  a 
few  seconds  for  the  ink  to  dry. 

In  regard  to  filling  the  pen,  there  is  a  quill 
with  each  bottle  of  ink  designed  for  the  pur- 
pose. Our  advice  is  to  pay  no  attention  to 
the  quill  method  of  filling  the  pen.  It  is  too 
slow  and  bothersome.  Dip  the  pen  right  in 
the  ink,  and  then  with  a  piece  of  cloth  lightly 
wipe  off  any  ink  that  remains  on  the  outside 
of  the  nibs  of  the  pen,  as  it  would  come  in 
contact  with  the  rule  and  otherwise  might 
cause  trouble.  Always  try  the  pen  on  a  piece 
of  paper  before  starting  a  line  to  see  if  it  is 
working  properly.  On  account  of  the  quick 
drying  qualities  of  the  ink  it  frequently  dries 
on  the  pen,  thus  stopping  the  flow  of  ink. 


DRAWING    DETAILS    OF   A    MODERATE    COST    COTTAGE.  33 


Fig.  27.— Method  of  Drawing  Ornamental  Shingles  in  Gables.— Scale,  J^  Inch  to  the  Foot. 


34 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOR    MECHANICS. 


Fig.  28.— Pattern  for  Shingle 
Work. 


Fig.   29.— Another  Shingle 
Pattern. 


fsWV'.'VA'.VV'uikj^v, 


^ 


Fig.  .'^2.- Shape  of  Rule  for 
Use  in  Inking  Drawings. 


^ 


^ 


Figs.  30  and  31.— Plan  and  Elevation  of  Octagon  Bay  Window.— 
Scale,  M  Inch  to  the  Foot. 


DRAWING    DETAILS    OE   A    MODERATE   COST   COTTAGE. 


This  is  particularly  bothersome,  especially 
in  making  very  fine  lines,  and  the  nibs  of  the 
pen  have  to  be  frequently  wiped  off  and 
adjusted.  Therefore  we  repeat,  be  sure  the 
pen  is  working  right  every  time  before  you 
start  a  line,  and  then  know  just  where  you 
want  to  stop  the  line  when  you  start  it.  This 
is  about  all  there  is  of  inking  and  drawing. 
Remember  to  make  all  drawings  lightly  with 
the  pencil  first,  then  ink  the  same  lines  over. 
If  any  superfluous  pencil  marks  remain  they 
can  be  easily  erased  with  a  rubber,  which 
will  have  no  effect  on  the  ink  lines.  To  ink 
a  drawing  on  architects'  tracing  paper,  place 
the  paper,  which  is  transparent,  over  the 
pencil  drawing,  and  the  lines  will  show  plain 
enough  to  be  easily  traced. 

We  have  now  passed  through  a  full  descrip- 
tion of  the  manner  and  method  of  making 
architectural  drawings.  The  subject  is  one 
of  such  wide  range  and  the  work  that  comes 
up  from  time  to  time  so  varied  that  perhaps 
no  definite  rules  can  be  laid  down  that  will 


meet  the  requirements  in  all  cases.  No  two 
architects  would  be  likely  to  pursue  exactly 
the  same  course,  yet  they  would  arrive  at 
the  same  results.  To  illustrate  and  describe 
all  phases  of  the  art  would  make  a  book  seem- 
ingly without  end.  In  these  instructions  in 
drawing  we  have  given  the  draftsman  the 
principles,  method  of  starting  and  his  course 
of  procedure  to  the  finish.  By  faithful  prac- 
tice and  study  of  the  art  he  will  steadily  im- 
prove, acquire  the  proper  use  of  the  tools  and 
better  judgment  as  to  the  methods  of  pro- 
ceeding in  difficult  cases.  These  points 
must  necessarily  be  left  to  the  judgment 
of  the  draftsman  as  they  come  up  from 
time  to  time.  Experience  and  practice 
will  prove  of  valuable  service  in  the  art, 
and  gain  for  him  a  knowledge  of  drafting 
that  can  be  acquired  in  no  other  way. 
Therefore  let  him  bear  in  mind  that  suc- 
cess in  the  art  depends  largely  upon  a  faith- 
ful adherence  to  the  simple  words  of  study 
and  practice. 


DRAWING    A    STONE    AND    FRAME    DWELLING 


With  a  view  to  bringing  out  new  phases  of 
the  subject,  we  next  choose  for  consideration 
a  large  two-story  stone  and  frame  residence, 
with  tower,  octagon  and  round  corners,  as 
well  as  many  other  features  calculated  to 
produce  a  wide  range  of  work  and  give  the 
student  the  largest  amount  of  study  and  prac- 
tice possible  to  obtain  from  a  single  example. 
The  basement  and  outside  stone  walls  of  the 
building  are  to  be  i8  inches  thick  up  to  the 
sscond  floor,  except  the  partitions  of  the 
basement,  which  may  be  8 -inch  brick  walls. 
All  outside  and  partition  walls  of  the  frame 
part  are  to  be  of  the  common  4-inch  stud- 
ding, which,  with  the  lath  and  plastering, 
makes  about  a  6-inch  wall.  The  difference 
in  the  thickness  of  the  stone  walls  and  the 
frame  partition  walls  causes  a  little  study  in 
the  laying  out  of  the  rooms,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent the  offsets  in  the  walls  making  undesira- 
ble corners  in  the  rooms.  In  preparing  the 
floor  plans  shown  in  Figs,  33  and  34,  the 
draftsman  will  see  how  easy  it  would  be  for 

86 


this  feature  to  show  itself,  and  yet  by  a  little 
study  in  the  way  of  planning  it  will  be  noted 
how  easily  it  has  been  avoided.  The  study 
of  planning  and  designing  goes  hand  in  hand 
with  the  drawing,  and  if  one  is  to  draw  prac- 
tical plans  every  detail  of  the  work  must  be 
thoroughly  studied. 

The  first  consideration  in  starting  the  work 
is  the  number  of  rooms  to  be  provided,  and 
the  size  or  an  approximation  thereto,  as  it  is 
not  always  possible  to  deterniine  just  how  a 
plan  will  work  out  on  the  start.  Draw  the 
outlines  in  pencil  so  as  to  take  in  the  desired 
number  of  rooms  ;  then  study  how  to  divide 
them  in  the  best  possible  manner  for  light, 
heat,  size  and  general  convenience.  It  will 
frequently  happen  that  the  general  outline 
will  need  to  be  extended  at  some  points  and 
contracted  or  drawn  in  at  other  places  ; 
hence  the  outlines  and  general  arrangement 
are  the  first  points  to  consider.  After  these 
have  been  pencil-sketched  and  the  plan  has 
assumed  a  tangible  form,  it  can  then  be  per- 


DRAWING    A    STONE   AND    FRAME   DWELLING. 


37 


Fig.  33 First  Floor. 


Fig.  34.— Second  Floor. 


Scale,  l-lt>  luch  to  the  Foot. 


38 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING   FOR    MECHANICS. 


Kg.  35.— Foundation. 


Fig.  36.— Roof  Plan. 


Scale,  1-16  Inclj  to  the  Foot, 


DRAWING    A    STONE   AND    FRAME   DWELLING. 


manently  drawn.  The  first-floor  plan  is 
usually  the  first  consideration,  and  from  it  the 
other  plans  are  correspondingly  arranged 
and  drawn. 

The  first-floor  plan  represented  in  Fig.  33 
shows  a  few  points  not  covered  in  previous 
work.  For  example,  the  burners  for  lighting 
are  represented  by  a  small  circle  and  cross, 
indicating  that  the  building  is  to  be  lighted 
by  gas  or  electricity.  The  circles  and  crosses 
in  the  middle  of  the  rooms  are  center  lights 
from  the  ceilings,  and  those  in  the  bedrooms 
are  side  lights  from  the  partition,  these  being 
usually  arranged  about  5  feet  apart  to  accom- 
modate a  dressing  case,  thus  giving  a  light 
on  either  side.  The  boiler  in  the  kitchen  for 
supplying  the  house  with  hot  water  is  shown 
near  the  chimney.  In  this  connection  atten- 
tion is  directed  to  the  location  of  the  bath- 
room on  the  second  floor.  It  will  be  found 
directly  over  the  kitchen,  making  the  connec- 
tions short  and  direct — a  special  feature  of 
the  plumbing  that  should  always  be  consid- 
ered. It  lessens  the  labor  and  expense,  while 
giving  better  service  generally,  to  locate  bath- 
rooms as  near  as  practicable  to  the  water 
supply. 

The  house  is  arranged  for  steam  or  hot 
water  heating  and  the  little  rectangular 
spaces  in  the  different  rooms  represent  the  lo- 


cation of  the  radiators. 
By  comparing  the 
first  and  second  floor 
plans  with  the  base- 
ment plan  the  general 
arrangement  of  the 
pipes  will  be  seen. 
A  special  feature  of 
this  plan  is  in  locat- 
ing the  radiators  so 
that  as  many  lines  of 
pipe  as  possible  may 
be  carried  parallel 
with  each  other  to 
the  different  rooms. 
This  results  in  a  con- 
siderable saving  of 
time  and  money,  as 
well  as  obviates  the 
necessity  of  a  great 
deal  of  joist  cutting, 
which  is  often  the 
case  where  the  pipes 
are  widely  scattered. 
In  the  parlor,  on 
the  first-floor  plan  is 
shown  the  method  of 
representing  a  fire 
place  and  mantel. 
The  small  circles   at 


Fipr.  37.  —  Section  Showing 
Hights  of  Stories,  Windows, 
&c.— Scale,  a  Inch  to  the 
Foot. 


40 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOR    MECHANICS. 


the  outside  of  plan  represent  the  down  spouts 
or  conductors  for  carrying  the  water  from  the 
gutters  on  the  roof.  The  basement  plan, 
Fig-  35,  shows  the  general  arrangement  of 
the  laundry,  boiler  room,  coal  bins,  etc. 
The  dotted  lines  outside  of  the  plan  show 
the  outside  dimensions  of  the  foundation 
wall.  The  outside  lines  to  the  left  and  front 
show  the  size  of  the  wall  over  all,  which  is 
36  X  45  feet.  The  next  set  of  Hnes  shows 
the  different  divisions  or  the  lengths  of  the 
wall  from  angle  to  angle.  The  total  of  the 
different  divisions  must  equal  the  extreme 
length  of  wall  on  each  side  respectively. 
The  drawing  sets  this  forth  so  plainly  that 
further  description  is  unnecessary.  It  is 
obvious  that  by  this  method  of  drawing  a 
plan  a  mistake  in  measurement  is  almost  im- 
possible. 

The  roof  plan  is  shown  in  Fig.  36,  the  dot- 
ted lines  indicating  the  wall  plate  and  the 
outside  lines  the  projection  of  the  cornice. 
The  other  lines  represent  the  hips,  valleys 
and  ridges,  and  are  easily  understood  from 
the  drawings.  It  will  be  observed  that  the 
octagon  end  of  the  left  gable  is  finished 
square  from  the  roof  plates,  having  large 
brackets  to  support  the  projecting  comers, 
thus  giving  a  wider  range  and  diversity  of 
work,  so  that  the  draftsman  may  have  a  bet- 


ter chance  to  exercise  his  skill  and  talent  in 
the  art  of  drawing. 

A  sectional  view  showing  the  hights  of 
stories,  hights  of  windows  above  the  floor, 
lengths  of  windows,  etc. ,  is  presented  in  Fig. 
37  of  the  engravings.  The  heavy  shading  or 
diagonal  Hnes  indicate  the  principal  sections 
of  the  wall  up  to  the  top  of  the  second  story. 
Different  sections  should  be  drawn  at  varied 
angles,  so  as  to  show  them  more  distinctly. 
This  will  be  found  especially  valuable  in  rep- 
resenting members  which  join  in  close  con- 
nection, as  shown  at  A  of  the  engraving. 
W  T  represents  the  water  table,  W  the  main 
wall,  S  sill,  and  J  the  jamb  of  frame  and  sub- 
sill.  The  hight  or  length  of  a  window  is 
represented  by  the  distance  between  sill  or 
subsill  and  head  jamb,  as  shown.  For  exam- 
ple, take  the  first  floor.  We  find  the  hight  of 
story  10  feet  between  floor  and  ceiling  ;  to 
the  top  of  lower  jamb  or  subsill  i  foot  8 
inches  ;  hight  of  window,  6  feet  6  inches. 
In  making  the  ordinary  calculations  for  win- 
dows, 6  inches  in  length  is  usually  allowed  for 
the  sash  and  4  inches  for  width  ;  3  inches  are 
allowed  for  bottom  rail,  i  inch  for  meeting 
rail  and  2  inches  for  top  rail,  making  a  total 
of  6  inches  to  be  added  to  the  length  of  glass. 
The  side  rails  are  2  inches,  making  4  inches 
in  width  to  be  added  to  the  glass  measure 


DRAWING    A    STONE   AND    FRAME   DWELLING. 


41 


Fig.  38.— Front  Elevation,  Showing  Method  of  Shading,  &c.— Scale,  H  Inch  to  the  Foot. 


42 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOE    MECHANICS. 


Thus  a  two-light  24  x  36  window  will  require 
an  opening,  exclusive  of  the  jambs  or  frame, 
2  feet  4  inches  by  6  feet  6  inches.  These 
figures  are  presented  in  order  to  give  a  httle 
information  as  to  the  manner  of  calculation. 

The  frame  part  of  the  building  starts  from 
the  second  floor,  and  the  general  arrange- 
ment and  construction  will  be  readily  under- 
stood from  the  drawing.  In  making  the 
drawing,  first  draw  the  outside  perpendicular 
wall  line  from  bottom  to  top  ;  then  set  off 
the  thickness  of  walls,  and  proceed  to  draw 
the  joist  lines,  floor  and  plaster  lines,  divi- 
sion lines  of  the  different  members  and  sec- 
tions, and  hights  of  windows  and  ceilings, 
leaving  the  section  shading  for  the  last.  In 
figuring  a  drawing,  as  in  setting  off  the 
hights,  make  the  figures  before  inking  the 
line,  which  will  leave  them  plain  and  dis- 
tinct. 

The  sectional  drawing  must  correspond 
with  the  elevation  as  regards  the  hights  of 
windows,  sections,  etc.  It  does  not  make 
any  material  difference  which  is  prepared 
first  if  proper  calculations  are  made.  By 
making  the  sectional  drawing  first  the  pro- 
portioning of  the  windows  to  the  hights  of 
stories  is  much  easier,  because  it  shows  the 
exact  position  of  the  windows  as  regards  the 
hights   on    the   inside,    while    the   elevation 


shows  the  general  arrangement  and  appear- 
ance on  the  outside. 

Generally  the  elevation  is  drawn  first  and 
the  section  drawn  to  correspond,  as  it  is  not 
always  easy  to  tell  from  the  section  just  the 
hight  at  which  a  window  will  look  best  in  the 
elevation,  and  a  few  inches  difference  on  the 
inside  is  immaterial  ;  but  it  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  section  and  elevation  must 
correspond,  no  matter  which  is  made  first. 
The  best  way  for  the  draftsman  is  to  make 
both  the  section  and  the  elevation  at  the 
same  time,  on  the  same  sheet  and  in  the 
same  line.  Leave  room  to  the  left  of  the 
elevation  for  the  sectional  drawing  and 
sketch  the  elevation  ;  then  sketch  the  sec- 
tional drawing  and  they  will -be  in  proper 
shape  for  comparison.  Any  changes  in  the 
planning  and  proportioning  for  improve- 
ment in  general  arrangement  and  appear- 
ance can  be  readily  seen  and  made  before 
the  inking  and  finishing  of  the  dravv^ings. 

The  front  elevation  of  the  design  is  pre- 
sented in  Fig.  38,  and,  as  in  a  former  por- 
tion of  this  work,  the  manner  of  sketching 
and  finishing  an  elevation  step  by  step  has 
been  shown,  we  will  not  repeat  the  details  at 
this  time,  but  submit  the  elevation  as  an  ex- 
ample for  practice,  calling  attention  only  to 
the  features  worthy  of  note.     Working  draw- 


Of 


DRAWING    A    STONE    AND    FRAME   DWELLING. 


43 


ings  do  not  necessarily  require  anything  more 
than  plain  lines  ;  but  as  drawings  for  pub- 
lication are  frequently  embellished  with  more 
or  less  shading  to  give  the  design  an  artistic 
appearance,  attention  will  be  directed  to  a 
few  points  on  shading.  Shading  is  not  one 
of  the  necessary  requirements,  but  by  proper 
shading  a  more  pleasing  effect  to  the  eye  can 
be  produced,  and  the  draftsman  who  can  dis- 
play the  most  artistic  skill,  combined  with 
other  qualifications,  is  most  likely  to  meet 
with  success.  Therefore  it  is  hoped  that  the 
few  ideas  which  may  be  presented  will  prove 
but  the  starting  of  work  which  the  readers 
will  carry  out  much  better  than  here  indi- 
cated. We  will  give  the  ideas,  but  the  man- 
ner of  best  presenting  them  in  drawing  can 
only  be  acquired  by  study  and  practice. 

The  starting  point  of  the  elevation  is  taken 
on  the  line  A  B,  which  is  the  bottom  line  of 
the  stone  base  or  water  table.  The  stone 
below  this  line  may  be  considered  the  founda- 
tion walls,  and  the  shading  is  represented  by 
somewhat  irregular  diagonal  lines — a  com- 
mon way  of  representing  stone  foundations. 
The  block  stone  above  the  water  table  is 
shaded  with  diagonal  parallel  lines,  every 
stone  not  being  shaded,  but  taking  them  in 
an  order  that  prominently  distinguishes  the 
corners  and  openings  of   the  building  and 


obviating  the  plainness  in  appearance  which 
would  otherwise  result.  The  slightly  irreg- 
ularly curved  lines  on  the  corners  shown 
from  course  to  course  of  the  stone  indicate 
that  the  stone  are  rock  faced.  If  the  stone 
were  square  faced  the  corners  would  be  rep- 
resented by  a  straight  line. 

In  the  windows  the  deep  black  shading 
represents  the  glass,  while  the  scallops  ex- 
tending through  the  windows  in  a  somewhat 
diagonal  manner  indicate  lace  curtains.  The 
two  windows  to  the  left  in  the  drawing  do 
not  show  the  right  side  sash  rail,  for  the  rea- 
son that  this  portion  of  the  wall  is  an  octagon 
corner,  and  in  a  direct  front  view  this  por- 
tion of  the  sash  is  hidden.  The  roof,  how- 
ever, on  this  octagon  end  has  been  framed 
similar  to  a  square  or  plain  gable  roof,  and 
the  projecting  corners  are  supported  by  large 
curved  brackets,  as  shown  in  the  elevation. 
It  will  be  noticed  that  the  roof  of  the  tower 
is  cross  lined  and  appears  finer  toward  the 
outlines,  so  as  to  indicate  circular  construc- 
tion. Having  now  briefly  referred  to  a  few 
points  on  shading,  it  is  suggested  that  the 
draftsman  increase  his  knowledge  in  this 
particular  direction  by  closely  studying  archi- 
tectural designs  as  presented  in  first-class 
architectural  journals. 

Referring  now  to  Fig.  39,  the  right  side 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING   FOR    MECHANICS. 


Fig.  39.— Side  (Right)  Elevation,  Showing  Parts  of  the  Work  in  Different  Stages  of  Completion.— Scale,  ^  Inch  to  the  Foot. 


DRAWING    A    STONE    AND    FRAME   DWELLING. 


46 


elevation,  we  will  show  the  several  parts  of 
the  work  in  different  stages  of  completion, 
believing  this  to  be  the  best  method  of 
clearly  indicating  the  plan  of  procedure.  As 
before  stated,  the  design  should  be  first 
sketched  in  pencil,  in  doing  which  it  is  often 
necessary  or  convenient,  at  least,  to  make 
some  superfluous  lines  or  marks  to  aid  in 
setting  off  different  parts  of  the  work,  but 
which  are  not  required  in  the  finished  draw- 
ing. These  lines  are  often  necessary  in 
making  calculations,  and  in  order  to  show 
their  usefulness  and  distinction  all  such  will 
be  represented  as  dotted  lines  in  Fig.  39. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  all  the  work 
is  first  sketched  in  pencil,  while  in  the  com.- 
pleted  drawing  only  the  lines  required  arc 
inked,  after  which  the  superfluous  lines,  rep- 
resented as  dotted  lines,  may  be  erased.  By 
closely  following  the  sketch  step  by  step  the 
draftsman  will  soon  become  familiar  with  this 
work,  as  a  portion  of  every  part,  both  in  a 
finished  and  unfinished  state,  will  be  shown. 
The  starting  point  is  from  the  line  A  B,  the 
bottom  line  of  the  stone  water  table.  After 
this  has  been  drawn  set  off  the  hight  of  the 
foundation  above  grade  and  draw  the  ground 
line,  as  shown.  Next  set  off  the  angles 
shown  in  the  plan  on  the  line  A  B  ;  compute 
the  hight  at  the  top  of  rafter  or  roof  at  the 


wall  plates  and  draw  thok  plumb  lines  of  the 
corners.  As  the  cornice  extends  below  the 
top  of  these  lines,  the  portion  which  extends 
through  the  cornice  lines  is  indicated  by 
dotted  lines.  The  tops  of  these  lines,  as 
shown  by  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  are  the  points  from 
which  to  make  the  calculations  for  the  eleva- 
tion of  the  roof,  and  after  establishing  these 
points  compute  the  hights  of  roof  at  the 
essential  points  and  draw  the  general  profile 
of  the  roof  in  outline,  taking  the  gables, 
ridges,  hips,  valleys  and  cornice  lines.  Next 
outline  the  finials,  cresting,  chimneys  and 
gutters.  The  dotted  plumb  line  showing 
center  of  tower  and  the  portion  of  dotted 
hip  line  joining  at  D  plainly  indicate  that  it 
is  necessary  to  locate  this  point  in  order  to 
correctly  represent  the  roof.  By  comparing 
Fig.  39  with  the  first-floor  plan  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  dotted  plumb  line  virtually  repre- 
sents one  of  the  main  corners  of  the  plan, 
but  the  tower  being  built  out  on  this  comer 
from  the  second  floor  would  of  course  hide 
the  line  from  view,  consequently  it  should 
not  appear  in  the  finished  work.  Attention 
has  been  called  to  this  simply  as  one  case 
perhaps  out  of  hundreds  where  the  drawing 
of  temporary  lines  will  aid  in  making  calcu- 
lations and  completing  the  permanent  draw- 
ing.    After  these  temporary  lines  have  served 


xiesE 


THE 


UNIVERSITY 


Or 


46 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOR   MECHANICS. 


their  purpose  they  should  be  erased  before 
inkirig  or  finishing  the  work.  The  dotted 
Hnes  shown  in  the  drawing  of  the  front  chim- 
ney and  finial  on  the  tower  indicate  their  use- 
fulness again  in  shaping  and  setting  off  the 
different  parts  of  the  work. 

The  next  step  is  to  locate  and  outline  the 
upper  windows.  First  find  the  proper  hight 
for  bottom  of  sill  and  draw  the  line  which 
will  represent  the  bottom  line  of  frames. 
Locate  the  windows  on  this  linj  and  set  off 
the  thickness  of  the  sill.  Next  set  off  and 
draw  the  size  of  the  opening,  allowing  for 
thickness  of  subsill  in  the  hight.  Set  off  the 
width  of  casings,  cap,  etc.,  and  draw  the 
lines  finishing  the  frame,  as  shown  in  the 
upper  right  corner  of  the  elevation.  The 
manner  of  drawing  the  sash  in  the  frame  is 
plainly  shown  by  comparing  the  finished  win- 
dow with  the  unfinished  one  in  the  double 
frame  at  the  left.  This  method  of  setting  off 
and  drawing  frames  will  be  found  easier  and 
better  than  the  one  set  forth  in  an  earlier 


part  of  this  work,  as  the  draftsman  is  not 
obliged  to  make  calculations  so  far  in  advance 
of  the  work.  The  method  referred  to  is  the 
outlining  and  drawing  of  frames,  and  shown 
in  Fig.  1 1  of  a  previous  article. 

The  next  step  in  the  progress  of  the  work 
is  the  outlining  of  the  porches,  -second-story 
base,  first-story  frames  and  so  on  down  to  the 
ground  line. 

Having  the  building  now  thoroughly  out- 
lined, we  will  proceed  to  finish  portions  of 
the  different  parts,  so  that  the  learner  can 
see  more  readily  just  how  to  proceed.  We 
will  not  go  through  with  the  finishing  step 
by  step,  as  we  believe  that  the  work,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  39,  is  presented  so  plainly  that 
further  description  is  unnecessary.  It  will 
be  sufScient  to  say  that  in  finishing  begin  at 
the  top  and  work  down,  which  avoids  to  a 
great  extent  rubbing  the  tools  and  hands 
over  the  finished  work,  and  will  aid  very 
much  to  keep  the  drawings  looking  neat  and 
clean. 


A  LESSON  IN  OUTLINING. 


For  a  lesson  in  outlining  which  will  present 
a  few  new  features  in  drawing  the  attention 
of  the  student  is  directed  to  Fig.  40,  repre- 
senting in  outline  the  left  side  elevation.  It 
will  be  noticed  that  this  view  of  the  plan 
presents  an  octagon  end  from  the  ground  line 
to  the  eaves,  finished  with  a  square  gable,  the 
projecting  corners  being  supported  by  large 
brackets.  This  is  a  form  frequently  met 
with  in  practice,  and  will  therefore  serve  as  a 
valuable  lesson  to  those  who  wish  to  make  a 
special  study  of  the  art  of  drawing.  Begin- 
ners are  liable  to  grasp  the  idea  that  an  eleva- 
tion showing  an  octagon  design  should  be 
represented  by  drawing  the  side  lines  of  the 
octagon  on  a  slight  angle,  as  shown  by  the 
dotted  lines  next  to  the  ground  line.  If  this 
were  the  case,  then  all  the  parallel  lines  on 
these  sides  would  necessarily  have  to  be 
drawn  on  the  same  angle  from  the  ground 
line  to  the  starting  of  the  roof.  Such  a 
course  as  this  -would  give  the  drawing  a 
rather  crooked  appearance.  It  should  be  re- 
membered that  all  horizontal  lines  shown  in 
a  direct  face  view  of  an  octagon  elevation  are 
47 


to  be  drawn  straight  across  all  sides,  as  shown. 
The  miter  lines  shown  so  distinctly  in  the 
perpendicular  lines  representing  the  corners 
plainly  indicate  the  portion  of  the  elevation 
having  the  octagon  form. 

We  do  not  consider  it  necessary  to  give 
more  than  a  brief  description  of  outlining 
this  elevation,  believing  it  best  to  leave  the 
greater  portion  for  the  study  and  practice  of 
the  learner.  First  draw  the  base  line,  set  off 
the  corners  and  then  draw  the  perpendicular 
lines  of  the  corners.  Calculate  the  hight  to 
the  eaves  and  draw  the  bottom  line  of  roof — 
not  the  cornice  line,  but  the  shingle  line,  for 
example.  Next  compute  the  hights  of  roof, 
gables,  etc. ,  and  draw  the  outline  of  the  roof. 
Locate  and  sketch  the  chimneys,  then  the 
cresting,  finials,  etc.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
a  comparatively  small  portion  of  the  front 
chimney  is  visible  in  this  elevation,  for  the 
reason  that  as  viewed  from  the  left  side  the 
roof  hides  a  portion  of  the  chimney.  The 
same  is  also  true  of  the  tower,  only  a  small 
portion  of  the  top  and  the  finial  being  visible 
from  the  left  side  elevation. 


48 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOR    MECHANICS. 


\        7 


\      7 


I  I I  I 


(  ( 


VI7 


] r       "I 


Fig.  40.— Side  (Left)  Elevation  in  GJeneral  Outline.— Scale,  H  Inch  to  the  Foot. 


A    LESSON   IN   OUTLINING. 


49 


These  points 
serve  to  show- 
that  the  plan  and 
corresponding 
elevations  have 
to  be  carefully 
studied  and 
watched  during 
the  entire  prog- 
ress  of  the 
work.  In  the 
sketch  is  shown 
a  portion  of  the 
cresting,  fin- 
ished, in  order 
that  the  diflEer- 
ence  in  the 
views  from  the 
right  and  left 
sides  of  the  same 
may  be  dis- 
tinctly  seen,  as 
in  one  view  the 
tower  appears  in 
front  of  the 
cresting  and  the 
other  show  s 
x«„  Ai    ^^  -1    «  -o     T.    ov  what   would   be 

rig.  41.— Detail  of  Porch,    Showing 
Method  of  Drawing  the  Different   the  expoScd  por- 
Members.-Scale,    %  Inch    to    the   ,^^^  ^^^^  ^^   ^^^ 


O 


O 


cresting.  These  points  will  be  plainly  seen 
by  comparing  Figs.  39  and  40.  In  outlining 
the  gutter  the  lower  portion  is  represented 
by  dotted  lines,  because  in  the  finishing  the 
.  short  perpendicular  lines  representing  the 
small  brackets  should  be  drawn  before  draw* 
ing  the  horizontal  lines  between  the  brackets. 
This  is  plainly  shown  in  Fig.  39. 

After  outlining  the  roof  the  next  in  order 
will  be  the  cornice,  such  as  the  molding, 
frieze,  etc.  Some  advantage  can  be  taken 
by  drawing  the  parallel  cornice  lines  at  the 
same  time  the  eave  line  is  drawn,  as  they  are 
in  close  connection,  and  all  that  is  necessary 
is  to  make  proper  calculations  in  doing  the 
work.  The  next  step  is  to  draw  the  base  and 
water  table  lines  which  mark  the  division  of 
the  two  stories  so  distinctly  in  this  drawing. 
Next  calculate  the  hight  of  windows  to  the 
bottom  of  sills  and  draw  the  lines  which  are 
to  represent  the  bottom  line  of  windows. 
From  these  lines  set  off  and  draw  outlines  of 
windows,  as  shown. 

We  think  now  that  the  details  of  outlin- 
ing have  been  made  sufficiently  plain  to 
enable  any  one  to  go  to  work  understand- 
ingly  and  complete  the  drawing.  "We 
would  recommend  that  as  a  lesson  for  prac- 
tice nothing  could  be  better  than  for  the 
learner   to    complete    the    imfinished    work 


50 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING    FOR    MECHANICS. 


shown  in  Figs.  39  and  40  in  a  manner  similar 
to  the  work  shown  by  Fig.  38,  using  a  scale 
of  not  less  than  ^  inch  to  the  foot.  Fig.  41 
shows  a  portion  of  the  porch  finished  in  de- 
tail to  the  scale  of  yi  inch  to  the  foot.  First 
draw  the  base  and  floor  lines,  then  two  per- 
pendicular lines  representing  the  column. 
Set  off  the  hight  from  floor  to  bottom  of 
frieze  and  draw  the  bottom  line  of  porch 
frieze  finish,  which  will  give  good  starting 
points  for  all  future  calculations.  From  the 
bottom  line  of  frieze  finish  the  different  parts 
may  be  readily  set  off  to  top  of  roof.  From 
the  floor  set  off  the  hight  of  the  railing  and 
draw  horizontal  lines  first,  spacing  and  filling 


in  as  shown.  The  turned  portion  of  porch 
column  may  be  easily  drawn  by  spacing  and 
setting  off  the  hights  of  the  different  mem- 
bers, as  shown.  The  sectional  parts  show  the 
general  construction  of  the  work.  The  spin- 
dles are  ball  turned  and  set  between  square 
upright  pieces,  as  shown.  For  general  prac- 
tice we  would  suggest  that  such  details  be 
made  on  a  scale  of  ^  inch  to  i  inch  to  the 
foot.  We  have  now  passed  through  the  sev- 
eral parts  of  the  work  of  making  a  set  of 
plans  which  bring  to  notice  a  very  wide 
range  of  work  in  the  art  of  drawing,  and  if  the 
learner  has  thoroughly  mastered  the  work  thus 
far  he  is  qualified  for  further  advancement. 


DESIGN  FOR  STORE  FRONT. 


It  is  hardly  necessary  to  go  into  all  the 
details  of  outlining  the  elevation,  section  and 
plan  of  the  store  front,  as  we  believe  suffi- 
cient has  been  said  upon  the  subject  to  enable 
the  learner  to  study  the  work  which  will  now 
be  presented  and  to  master  it  without  other 
suggestions  than  a  few  brief  instructions. 
The  knowledge  gained  by  the  practice  and 
experience  of  working  out  the  several  parts 
of  the  drawing  for  oneself  will  be  far  more 
beneficial  to  the  learner  than  to  have  men- 
tioned every  little  detail,  many  of  which  have 
been  thoroughly  explained  in  connection  with 
other  drawings.  We  will,  for  the  most  part, 
take  up  such  portions  of  the  work  as  possess 
new  features.  A  special  feature  to  which  we 
wish  to  call  attention  is  the  corresponding 
lines  of  width  and  hights  in  the  plan  of  the 
front  and  sectional  view  as  compared  with 
the  elevation.  The  drawing.  Fig.  42,  is  a 
combination  of  the  plan  of  front,  sectional 
view  of  the  walls,  etc.^  and  the  elevation,  and 
it  shows  plainer  than  words  can  describe  the 
relation   one   part    bears   to   the   other.      It 

51 


shows  very  plainly  how  to  draw  the  elevation 
in  accordance  with  the  plan  "of  front  and  to 
carry  up  with  the  greatest  degree  of  accuracy 
and  convenience  the  section  corresponding 
with  the  hights  shown  in  the  elevation.  By 
this  method  mistakes  and  discrepancies  in 
the  different  parts  closely  connected  are 
avoided.  In  order  that  the  learner  may  start 
aright,  it  may  be  stated  that  the  sidewalk 
line  in  the  drawing  is  the  most  favorable 
starting  point,  and  it  will  be  found  easy  to 
make  calculations  from  this  line  in  any  direc- 
tion necessary  to  complete  the  work.  The 
sidewalk  line  is  the  base  line  of  the  eleva- 
tion, therefore  set  off  on  this  line  the  width 
of  the  building  and  square  down  sufficiently 
to  draw  the  plan  of  the  front.  Draw  the 
outline  of  the  front  and  the  thickness  of  the 
wall  ;  then  set  off  the  doors,  windows,  col- 
umns, etc.,  as  shown  in  the  plan.  The  dot- 
ted plumb  lines  show  how  to  carry  up  the 
front  in  accordance  with  the  plan.  The  loca- 
tion of  the  second-story  windows,  as  a  matter 
of  fact,  necessarily  has  to  be  in  accordance 


53 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOR    MECHANICS. 


DESIGN  FOR    STORE   FRONT. 


53 


with  the  front  of  the  second-floor  plan.  The 
circular  dotted  line  on  the  left  corner  of  the 
plan  of  the  front  has  been  drawn  to  show 
how  to  get  the  required  projection  of  the 
oriel  window,  built  out  from  the  second  floor. 


i^ 


hMNH 


PARLOR      ASITTING  ROOM 

ii'x  13'         Ay     10  ex  13 


-^^ 


-fcHI=1 


Fig.   43.— Plan  of  Second  Floor,  Showing  Special  Features 
of  Planning  -  Scale,  1-16  Inch  to  the  Foot. 


This  is  plainly  indicated  by  the  long  dotted 
plumb  line.  The  starting  of  the  support  to 
the  projecting  window  is  from  a  point  plumb 


over  the  center  of  the  octagon  comer  in  the 
plan.  This,  of  course,  makes  the  outside 
scroll  appear  more  elongated  than  the  inside 
scroll.  The  window  being  round  and  start- 
ing on  the  side  of  an  octagon  corner  accounts 
for  this  appearance,  and  a  little  study  of  the 
plan  and  elevation  will  make  this  point  clear 
to  the  mind. 

By  comparing  the  elevation  with  Fig.  43, 
the  second-floor  plan,  it  will  be  observed  that 
either  a  direct  front  view  or  a  direct  side 
view  of  the  plan  would  show  us  three  win- 
dows or  part  of  three  windows  in  either  a 
front  or  side  elevation.  In  the  front  eleva- 
tion there  is  in  reality  more  of  the  outside 
window  shown  than  is  in  strict  accord  with 
the  second-floor  plan.  This  point  will  serve 
to  impress  upon  the  mind  of  the  draftsman 
that  it  will  often  require  his  closest  attention 
in  comparing  drawings  and  his  best  judg- 
ment in  executing  the  work  to  keep  the  pro- 
portions in  accordance  with  the  point  of  view 
taken  of  the  plan  and  elevation.  Of  the  sec- 
tion showing  bights  of  ceilings,  etc.  ^  very  lit- 
tle need  be  said.  It  should  be  sketched  with 
the  elevation  as  a  guide  to  correspond  with 
hights  of  windows,  floors,  etc.  The  first-floor 
hight  shows  a  section  of  the  store  front  sash. 
A  section  in  line  of  the  doors  would  be 
slightly  different,  as  double  transoms  have 


64 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOR    MECHANICS. 


been  provided  in  order  to  lessen  the  hight  of 
the  doors,  as  shown. 

This  store  front  is  designed  with  heavy  cut 
stone  columns  from  base  to  the  I-beam. 
From  the  top  of  the  I-beam  the  columns  are 
continued  with  block  stone  to  the  cornice  line 
and  a  stone  coping  is  run  across  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  second-story  windows.  The  oriel 
window,  tower  and  cornice  is  of  frame  con- 


struction, although  the  same  design  can  be 
executed  in  sheet  metal  on  a  wooden  frame 
work.  The  body  of  the  work  is  to  be  of 
brick,  as  are  also  the  arches  over  the  win- 
dows. The  caps  to  the  windows  are  to  be 
galvanized  iron.  There  are  no  brick  lines 
drawn  in  the  elevation,  as  these  will  be  left  for 
the  practice  of  those  who  wish  to  still  further 
carry  out  the  design  and  improve  upon  it. 


HINTS  ON  PLANNING. 


We  will  now  gfive  a  few  hints  in  regard  to 
planning,  a  feature  which  should  also  com- 
mand the  attention  of  good  draftsmen. 
Small  and  irregular  shaped  rooms  should  be 
avoided.  All  rooms  should  have  square  cor- 
ners if  possible  ;  projecting  corners  and  re- 
cesses should  not  appear  in  a  plan  unless 
caused  by  a  chimney  or  a  bay  window. 
There  is  nothing  nicer  than  plain,  square 
cornered  rooms,  especially  when  it  comes  to 
the  carpeting  and  furnishing.  Octagon  cor- 
ners should  generally  be  avoided  ;  also  three- 
cornered  closets  across  the  comers  of  rooms. 
A  much  better  way  for  such  closets  is  to 
allow  a  little  more  room  in  a  hall  or  some 
other  part  and  build  the  closet  out  from  the 
room,  as  shown  on  the  floor  plan.  Fig.  43, 
This  circular  form  gives  a  much  better  shaped 
closet  by  avoiding  the  sharp  comers,  giving 
more  room  and  leaving  the  rooms  with  all 
square  corners.  There  is  also  plenty  of  room 
left  in  the  hall.  Long  and  narrow  halls  should 
be  avoided,  also  steep  and  crooked  stairs. 
The  architect  and  designer  should  plan  to 

reach  as  nearly  as  possible  all  the  rooms  on 
55 


each  floor  from  the  main  hall  and  to  use  all 
the  room  to  the  best  possible  advantage. 

In  the  floor  plan  is  shown  the  method  of 
marking  where  transom  frames  are  used  in 
the  interior  ;  thus  2'  8"  x  6'  8"  T  12"  means 
that  the  transom  to  be  used  should  be 
12  inches  in  hight.  The  elevation  shows 
the  method  usually  employed  in  mark- 
ing size  of  windows  and  the  figures  give 
the  glass  measure. 

STAIR    WORK. 

We  will  next  touch  upon  the  subject  of 
planning,  laying  out  and  drawing  stairs. 
Everybody  knows  that  many  a  time  too  little 
room  is  left  for  the  stairs,  and  the  result  is 
steep  and  awkward  stairways  in  what  are 
supposed  to  be  the  better  class  of  houses. 
Much  of  this  is  due  to  ignorance  or  careless- 
ness on  the  part  of  the  designer  to  make  a 
few  figures.  It  is  too  often  left  in  this  way : 
' '  I  guess  so  much  for  stairs  will  be  plenty. ' ' 
The  best  way  is  to  figure  it  and  make  sure 
that  there  is  plenty  of  room.  For  the  benefit 
of  those  who  are  young  in  the  work  of  plan- 


56 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOR    MECHANICS. 


ning  w^  will  show  by  sketches  how  to  deter- 
mine the  amount  of  room  required,  and  also 
give  an  easy  method  by  which  to  solve  the 
problem  by  figures. 

Referring  to  Fig.  44,  which  represents  a 
straight  flight  of  stairs,  we  find  the  rise  as 
given  from  floor  to  floor  to  be  10  feet.  By 
computing  the  risers  at  8  inches  we  find  that 
it  takes  15  to  reach  the  top  floor.  It  will  be 
seen  that  we  calculate  space  for  only  14  steps, 
as  the  fifteenth  lands  on  the  floor.  Next  we 
calculate  the  run  required  for  14  steps. 
These  we  have  estimated  at  10  inches  each, 
making  the  run  11  feet  8  inches,  as  shown. 
The  rise  and  run  of  stairs  are  always  taken 
as  laid  out  on  the  string  board,  the  projec- 
tion of  the  step  for  nosing  and  molding,  as 
shown  at  the  bottom  step,  not  being  counted. 
From  the  top  of  the  third  riser  to  the  ceiling 
is  7  feet.  Plumb  over  the  third  riser,  and 
facing  it,  we  have  located  the  header,  giving 
7  feet  head  room  for  the  stairs.  From  this 
header  we  count  the  number  of  steps  back, 
allow  for  thickness  of  riser,  an  inch  or  so  for 
work  room,  and  we  have  the  distance  between 
headers,  or  the  length  of  the  well  hole,  as  it 
is  sometimes  called.  In  this  case  it  is  10  feet 
3  inches.  The  sketch  shows  very  plainly  how 
to  figure  the  stairs  with  a  certainty  as  to  the 
room  required,   and  the  same  general  plan 


will  hold  good  in  any  case.  The  sketch  shows 
an  easy  pitch.  Stairs  are  frequently  run  much 
steeper,  but  for  good  work  we  advise  plenty 
of  room  for  easy  stairs.  If  it  is  desired  to 
figure  it  without  a  draft,  commence  at  the 
foot  of  the  stairs,  proceeding  as  follows :  First 


Fig:.  44.— Diagram  Showing  Method  of  Drawing  and  Calculating 
for  Stairs.— Scale,  3-16  Inch  to  the  Foot. 

find  the  number  of  risers  required,  then  de- 
cide upon  the  amount  of  head  room  wanted 
and  see  how  many  risers  can  be  deducted 
from  the  hight  of  the  ceiling  and  leave  this 
room.  The  space  required  for  steps  up  to  this 
point  will  be  one  step  less  than  the  number  of 
risers,  and  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  count  the 


HINTS    ON  PLANNING. 


57 


steps,  lay  them  off  on  the  floor  and  start  the 
header  plumb  over  the  back  edge  of  the 
last  step,  or  as  nearly  so  as  practical. 
Fig.  45  shows  the  method  of  laying  out 
and  drawing  the  plan  of  winding  and 
platform  stairs  with  a  portion  of  the  fram- 
ing for  the  floor  joists,  headers,  etc.  To 
find  the  exact  floor  space  required  for  the 
stairs,  lay  off  the  run  of  each  step  according 
to  actual  scale  measurement,  as  shown.     It 


Fip.  45.— Method  of  Drawing,  Calculating  and  Framing 
for  Winding  Stairs.— Scale,  1-16  Inch  to  the  Foot. 

is  customary  to  place  three  steps  as  winders 
in  stairs  of  the  average  width ;  sometimes  four 
steps  are  placed  in  the  winders,  but  we 
would  not  recommend  more  than  three  and 
never  more  than  four  steps  in  the  winders. 
The  space  required  for  the  winders  is  usually 
taken  as  a  square,  the  sides  of  which  equal 
the  width  of  the  stairs.  For  example,  if  the 
stairs  are  3}^  feet  wide,  the  space  required 


for  the  winders  will  he  ^}4  feet  square.  The 
same  rule  holds  good  in  regard  to  platforms. 
As  regards  the  framing  for  the  headers,  it  is 
safe  to  say  that  a  header  could  be  placed  flush 
with  the  side  of  the  square  and  third  winder, 
and  leave  plenty  of  head  room  in  ordinary 
dwellings  having  9  to  10  foot  ceilings,  as  shown 
by  dotted  lines  extending  across  flush  with 
the  first  post.  This  would  leave  room  enough 
on  the  fioor  above  for  a  small  closet.  If  this 
was  not  desired,  or  if  for  any  reason  this  ar- 
rangement should  not  give  head  room  enough, 
the  short  header  and  joists  indicated  by  the 
dotted  lines  may  be  omitted  and  the  frame 
work  put  in  as  shown.  From  6  to  10  inches 
is  usually  allowed  between  the  string  board 
and  the  headers  for  stairs  with  a  rail,  or 
"  open  stairs,"  as  they  are  frequently  called. 
At  the  landing  it  is  only  necessary  to  allow  2 
or  3  inches  between  the  header  and  the  last 
riser.  This  sketch  is  given  to  impress  upon 
the  mind  of  the  draftsman  the  importance  of 
good  calculation  in  connection  with  drawing 
plans,  and  that  a  scale  drawing  is  the  best  and 
most  effective  way  to  show  the  calculations. 

FRAMING    PLANS    AND    ELEVATIONS. 

We  will  now  turn  to  a  few  drawings  show- 
ing the  method  of  indicating  framing  plans. 
Fig.  46  represents  the  plan  of  a  farm  barn 


58 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOR    MECHANICS. 


with  large  floor  space,  driveway  running 
through  the  building,  stable  room  for  five 
horses,  granary  and  passageways.  This  plan 
is  well  arranged  for  an  addition  or  an  annex 
to  the  right,  such  as  a  cow  stable,  for  exam- 
ple, which  would  be  handy  to  both  hay  and 
grain,  and  would  be  considerably  removed 
from  the  horse  stable,  which  is  a  feature 
generally  desired.  It  is  hardly  necessary  to 
show  in  detail  the  manner  of  drawing  the 
sketches  presented  on  this  subject.  The 
drawings  are  plain  and  easily  understood  and 
will  serve  as  good  examples  for  practice, 
particularly  Fig.  47,  which  shows  just  where 
to  start  and  stop  the  pen  without  crossing 
lines  which  should  not  be  crossed  in  repre- 


senting   the    work    properly.      This   figure 
shows  the  general  framing  plan  of  the  sills 


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Pig.  46.  -  Floor  Plan  of  Baru  —Scale,  1-16  Inch  to  the  Foot. 


Fig.  47.— Method  of  Drawing  Floor  Framing  Plan.— Scale,  1-16 
Inch  to  the  Foot. 

and  floor  joists.  It  is  desirable  in  stables  to 
have  the  floor  run  lengthwise  behind  the 
horses,  with  a  double  floor  in  the  stalls,  the 
top  floor  running  lengthwise  of  them.  In  the 
driveway  it  is  desirable  for  the  floor  to  run 
crosswise,  as  it  is  not  as  slippery  to  the 
horses'  feet  when  pulling  in  loads.  It  also 
makes  a  stronger  floor.  This  we  trust  will 
be  sufficient  reason  for  the  plan  of  the  joists 
presented  in  Fig.  47.  The  plan  shows  the 
joists  resting  on  top  of  the  sills  and  girders, 
which  is  a  better  and  stronger  method  than 
framing  them  in,  besides  being  easier  and 


HINTS    ON  PLANNING. 


pSE    L/fi^- 


OI'  THB 


UNIVERSITY 


59 


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s 

K 

/ 

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4x4 

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Fig.  48.— Method  of  Drawing  the  Right  Side  Elevation  of  Frame.— Scale,  ^  Inch  to  the  Foot. 


60 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING   FOR    MECHANICS. 


Fig.  49.— Method  of  Framing  Left  End  Bent.— Scale,  %  Inch  to  the  Foot. 


HINTS    ON  PLANNING. 


61 


quicker.  A  little  study  of  the  framing  plan, 
Fig.  47,  will  be  sufficient  to  show  the  drafts- 
man just  how  to  proceed  to  draw  a  similar  plan. 
The  framing  of  the  right  side  elevation  of 
the  building  is  shown  in  Fig.  48  of  the  illus- 
trations. The  particular  part  to  which  atten- 
tion is  invited  is  the  starting  and  stopping  of 
the  lines  at  just  the  right  points  in  drawing 
the  plates  and  rafters.  As  previously  stated, 
the  first  thing  is  to  pencil  sketch  all  work  ; 
then  with  well  guarded  movements  one  can 
tell  just  where  to  start  and  stop  the  pen. 
Suppose,  for  instance.  Fig.  48  is  pencil 
sketched,  and  we  are  to  ink  it.  First  take 
the  sill  lines,  then  the  top  ridge  line,  and 
after  that  the  outside  rafter  and  post  lines. 
This  will  give  the  outline  of  the  entire  figure. 
As  the  rafters  are  joined  by  means  of  a  ridge 
board  and  rest  on  top  of  the  purlin  and  main 
plates,  while  at  the  same  time  extending 
below  the  main  plate,  it  is  necessary  to  next 
draw  the  rafters.  First  draw  the  ends,  then 
the  length  lines,  after  which  the  roof  can  be 
finished  by  drawing  the  lower  lines  of  the 
ridge  board  and  the  plate  lines  as  they  would 
appear  between  the  rafters,  thus  showing 
just  where  to  start  and  stop  the  short  lines. 
The  short  lines  running  perpendicularly  from 
the  main  plate  to  the  purlin  plate  show  the 
portion  of  the  purlin  posts  exposed  to  view  at 


the  side  of  the  rafters  on  account  of  the  posts 
being  thicker.  Next  draw  the  main  post 
lines,  girt  lines,  door  posts,  headers  and 
braces  in  the  order  named.  A  little  practice 
in  this  kind  of  work  is  the  best  experience, 
and  as  the  work  progresses  step  by  step  the 
best  ways  and  means  of  accomplishing  cer- 
tain results  will  come  to  light  and  appear 
plainer  and  plainer  as  the  draftsman  gains  in 
the  knowledge  of  his  profession. 

The  elevation  of  the  left  end  bent  is  shown 
in  Fig.  49,  which  is  self  explanatory.  A  few 
figures  are  included  to  give  an  idea  of  mark- 
ing sizes  of  timber  used.  The  elevation  of 
the  next  bent,  which  shows  some  changes  in 
the  framing,  is  represented  in  Fig.  50.  This 
being  an  inside  bent,  it  is  not  necessary  that 
the  tie  girts,  to  which  it  is  usual  to  nail  the 
siding,  should  be  in  the  frame  ;  in  fact,  they 
would  only  be  in  the  way,  so  for  this  reason 
they  are  omitted.  The  purlin  girt  is  left  out 
because  it  would  be  in  the  way  of  operating 
a  hay  fork  if  one  was  desired.  As  this  bent 
is  the  one  directly  in  front  of  the  horses  and 
next  to  the  barn  floor  it  is  necessary  that  it 
should  be  boarded  up  about  3  feet  high.  For 
this  purpose  tie  girts  are  put  in  and  studded 
underneath,  as  shown. 

It  would  now  appear  that  the  subject  of 
architectural  drawing  had  been  considered 


TTT.,     "''THE     Ty^ 

UNIVERSITY 


s£iUFORN\' 


32 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOR    MECHANICS. 


Fig.  60  —Method  of  Framing  and  Drawing  Middle  Bent.— Scale,  %  Inch  to  the  Foot. 


HINTS    ON   PLANNING. 


63 


witli  sufficient  clearness  to  enable  the  student 
to  proceed  understandingly  in  ordinary  prac- 
tice and  make  the  working  plans  so  often 
required  in  the  building  trade. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  well  to  say  to 
those  who  wish  to  improve  themselves  in 
this  subject  :  study  the  plans,  elevations  and 
details  of  the  buildings  that  appear  from 
time  to  time  in  architectural  journals.  Many 
of  them  show  specimens  of  the  finest  archi- 
tectural work,  which  will  s^rve  as  the  very 


best  of  lessons  for  study  and  practice.  Study 
the  work  ;  study  how  to  improve  upon  it  ; 
study  the  best  manner  to  proceed,  and  then 
try  a  hand  at  executing  the  work  by  making 
a  few  drawings  for  practice. 

Very  small  curves,  scrolls  and  ornaments 
can  be  best  made  with  a  very  fine  writing 
pen,  as  the  drawing  pen  is  not  adapted  to  the 
short  and  crooked  lines  forming  the  curves  of 
molded  surfaces,  brackets  and  small  orna- 
ments appearing  in  elevations. 


ARCHITECTURAL  PERSPECTIVE. 


We  have  now  treated  the  subject  of  archi- 
tectural drawing  somewhat  extensively,  going 
into  the  details  of  the  various  parts  of  the 
work  in  a  concise  and  thorough  manner. 
Actual  working  drawings  to  scale  measure- 
ments have  been  a  special  feature  of  the 
work  as  one  of  the  principal  points  of  value 
to  the  mechanic.  Working  drawings  are 
what  mechanics  necessarily  require  from 
which  to  work,  and  they  must  always  be 
drawn  full  size  or  to  some  convenient  scale. 
Working  drawings  show  but  one  side  of  an 
object,  but  if  it  be  required  to  show  more, 
then  a  separate  drawing  is  necessary  for  each 
side.  In  preparing  elevations  of  buildings, 
we  have  front,  right,  left  and  rear  elevations, 
each  being  represented  separately  in  the 
working  drawings. 

Perspective  drawing  is  a  far  more  difficult 
subject  to  understand  and  master  than  the 
making  of  working  drawings.  As  a  rule,  the 
mechanic  has  little  demand  for  perspective 
drawings,  as  they  are  not  to  work  from,  and 
he  who  can  make  the  floor  plans,  front  and 
side  elevations,  sections  ^nd  details  in  a  cred- 

64 


itable  manner  is  master  of  the  art  of  archi- 
tectural drawing  so  far  as  his  work  is  likely 
to  require  a  knowledge  of  drawing.  So  many 
inquiries,  however,  in  regard  to  perspective 
have  been  received  that  it  is  deemed  best  to 
give  in  brief  the  objects  and  principles  of 
perspective  for  the  benefit  of  those  who  may 
desire  to  take  up  the  subject. 

Perspective  refers  to  the  appearance  of  ob- 
jects as  influenced  by  the  position  and  dis- 
tance from  the  eye.  Perspective  drawings 
give  the  appearance  from  one  point  of  view  ; 
and  is  an  art  required  more  particularly  in 
picture  making.  In  perspective  we  do  not 
see  the  size  of  objects  as  they  really  are,  but 
as  they  seem  to  be  from  a  given  point  of 
view.  The  perspective  view  of  an  object 
requires  that  the  object  be  placed  in  an 
oblique  position  to  the  direct  line  of  vision  or 
point  of  sight  from  which  it  is  viewed.  For 
example,  the  perspective  view  of  a  house  is 
obtained  by  placing  the  plan  in  an  oblique 
position  to  the  principal  line  of  vision.  In 
architectural  perspective  the  plan  is  usually 
placed  on  an  angle  of  45  degrees  with  the 


ARCHITECTURAL    PERSPECTIVE. 


65 


point  of  sight,  A  building  so  placed  will 
show  two  sides  to  the  draftsman,  but  will  not 
show  either  side  as  it  really  is,  but  as  it  seems 
to  be  from  the  point  of  sight.  By  placing 
objects  obliquely  to  the  principal  line  of  vis- 
ion they  not  only  appear  smaller,  but  their 
shape  also  appears  changed — that  is,  the  gen- 
eral outline  and  appearance  seem  to  take  on  a 
different  form.  There  is  a  science  of  main- 
taining a  proportional  scale  in  representing 
the  appearance  of  objects  in  perspective. 

It  is  not  the  intention  to  enter  into  the 
work  of  perspective  m  an  exhaustive  man- 
ner, but  to  give  a  few  simple  diagrams  which 
will  illustrate  the  principles  in  a  way  to  be 
easily  understood  by  the  student.  Many  of 
the  intricacies  of  perspective  drawing  can 
with  proper  diagrams  and  explanations  be 
made  easy  of  comprehension  to  the  average 
mechanic.  We  will,  before  proceeding  fur- 
ther, explain  a  few  of  the  terms  and  points 
used  in  the  work.  Referring  to  Fig,  51,  let 
H  L  represent  the  horizontal  line  and  P  L  V 
the  principal  line  of  vision.  In  a  perspective 
diagram  these  two  lines  are  always  present, 
and  invariably  bear  the  same  geometric  re- 
lation to  each  other.  The  first  indicates  the 
level  of  the  eye,  the  second  is  the  direct  line 
of  vision  and  extends  from  the  eye  of  the 
spectator  to  the  horizontal  line,  and  at  right 


angles  to  it.  The  length  of  these  lines  is 
variable  according  to  the  requirements  of  the 
objects  to  be  placed  in  perspective.  The 
P  L  V  is  drawn  vertical  in  order  to  represent 
it,  but  it  should  be  remembered  that  it  is  a 
horizontal  line — extending  from  the  eye  of 
the  spectator.  S  P  is  the  station  point,  which 
is  sometimes  called  the  point  of  sight,  and 
represents  the  position  of  the  eye  in  the  dia- 
gram. When  this  point  is  determined — that 
is,  its  distance  from  the  horizontal  line — it 
decides  the  limits  of  the  drawing,  for  all 
other  points  in  the  diagram  are  determined 
by  the  position  of  the  station  point,  C  V  is 
the  center  of  vision,  and  is  the  point  in  the 
horizontal  line  directly  opposite  the  station 
point.  V  P  is  the  vanishing  point,  which 
may  be  any  point  in  a  diagram  where  two  or 
more  really  parallel  lines  meet,  but  which,  on 
account  of  retreating,  appear  to  converge. 
There  may  be  two  or  more  vanishing  points 
in  a  diagram,  according  to  the  number  of 
planes  of  the  object  to  be  drawn  and  its  posi- 
tion from  the  station  point. 

All  horizontal  retreating  lines  have  their 
vanishing  points  in  the  horizontal  line,  but 
their  positions  are  variable,  depending  upon 
the  position  of  the  retreating  lines  of  the  ob  • 
ject  to  be  drawn.  The  P  L  V  is  a  horizontal 
line  retreating  from  the  eye  at  the  station 


66 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOR    MECHANICS. 


point  on  an  angle  of  90  degrees,  and  its  van- 
ishing point  is  therefore  the  center  of  vision. 
It  is  plain  that  all  parallel  retreating  lines 
converge  to  a  common  point,   and  all  lines 


and  as  we  do  not  wish  to  weary  the  student 
with  a  labyrinth  of  lines  and  points  at  the 
beginning  of  the  subject,  we  will  proceed 
with  the  diagram  and  explain  the  other  points 


MP 


Fig.  51.— Geometrical  Drawing  and  Perspective  of  a  Door.— Scale,  3-16  Inch  to  the  Foot. 


parallel  to  the  P  L  V  which  retreat  at  an 
angle  of  90  degrees  find  a  common  point  in 
the  center  of  vision,  which  is  the  vanishing 
point  for  all  such  lines. 

We  have  now  explained  a  few  of  the  prin- 
cipal points  required  in  perspective,  but  other 
points  will  come  up  as  the  work  advances, 


as  they  come  up  from  time  to  time.  Take 
for  the  first  lesson  in  perspective  a  plain  four- 
panel  door,  which  is  about  as  easy  to  make  as 
anything  in  the  line  of  architectural  work. 
Referring  to  Fig.  51,  first  draw  the  horizon- 
tal line,  which  represents  the  level  of  the 
eye,  and  from  a  point  near  the  center  draw 


ARCHITECTURAL   PERSPECTIVE. 


67 


at  right  angles  the  principal  line  of  vision. 
On  this  line  determine  the  station  point. 
This  may  be  assumed  at  any  convenient  dis- 
tance from  the  horizontal  line,  but  when 
once  fixed  the  other  points  are  dependent 
upon  its  position.  Next  draw  the  ground 
line.  This  line  may  be  fixed  according  to 
the  judgment  of  the  draftsman,  but  very 
naturally  in  viewing  objects  on  level  ground, 
the  ground  line  would  be  from  4^  to  5  ^  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  eye  or  the  horizontal 
line.  Now,  make  the  geometrical  drawing 
of  the  door  as  shown  at  A.  Draw  the  door 
on  a  scale  of  3-16  inch  to  the  foot  and  3x7 
feet  in  size  for  convenience.  This  brings  the 
top  of  door  I  }4  feet  above  the  horizontal  line. 
Proceed  to  outline  the  door  in  perspective  by 
drawing  from  some  convenient  point  on  the 
ground  line  the  first  upright  line  of  the  door, 
which  remains  unchanged  by  perspective,  as 
at  B.  Next  draw  the  retreating  lines  of  the 
top  and  bottom  of  the  door,  and  also  the  top 
and  bottom  lines  of  the  panels,  to  the  vanish- 
ing point  V  P,  as  shown.  A  door  placed 
obliquely  to  the  P  L  V  would  be  foreshort- 
ened in  width,  because  the  real  width  would 
not  be  seen  owing  to  its  oblique  position.  In 
order  to  determine  the  amount  the  door 
would  be  foreshortened,  it  is  necessary  to 
establish  a  measuring  point,  which  is  done  as 


follows  :  Measure  out  from  C  V  on  the  hori- 
zontal line  a  distance  equal  to  that  from  C  V 
to  S  P,  or  take  the  compasses,  and,  with  the 
distance  from  C  V  to  S  P  as  a  radius,  strike 
a  semicircle,  and  the  points  where  it  cuts  the 
horizontal  line  will  be  the  measuring  points. 
In  this  example  only  one  measuring  point  is 
required,  as  shown  at  M  P.  Having  now 
established  what  is  termed  a  measuring 
point,  it  will  next  be  shown  how  the  fore- 
shortening of  the  door  is  determined.  Take 
the  actual  width  of  the  door  A  according  to 
scale  and  set  off  this  distance  on  the  ground 
line  from  the  first  upright  line  of  the  door  B, 
as  shown  by  G  S.  This  measurement  is 
called  a  geometric  scale.  From  the  end  of 
this  scale  at  S  draw  a  line  to  the  measuring 
point  M  P,  and  the  place  where  the  line 
crosses  the  retreating  ground  line  of  the 
door,  as  at  D,  will  be  the  point  from  which 
to  draw  the  vertical  line,  which  will  establish 
the  perspective  width  of  the  door.  All  the 
other  perspective  widths  are  found  in  the 
same  manner  by  setting  off  from  G  on  the 
geometric  scale  the  actual  scale  measure- 
ments, as,  for  example,  the  width  of  the 
stiles  and  panels,  arid  from  these  points  draw 
lines  to  the  measuring  point,  as  shown.  These 
lines  crossing  the  retreating  ground  line  de- 
termine the  perspective  widths  of  the  stiles 


68 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOR    MECHANICS. 


and  panels.  The  horizontal  dotted  lines  show 
how  the  hights  are  transferred  from  the 
geometrical  drawing  to  the  perspective. 

For  the  benefit  of  the  learner  it  would  be 
well  for  him  to  draw  the  perspective  of  the 


truly  astonishing,  and  a  few  carefully  made 
drawings  showing  different  perspective  views 
will  soon  give  the  student  an  idea  of  the 
proper  manner*  of  proceeding  and  lay  the 
foundation  for  further  advancement.     As  the 


Fig.  52.— Dlaffram  Showing  Difference  in  Appearance  of  Objects  Placed  in  Varying  Positions. 

Scale,  3-16  Inch  to  the  Foot. 


door  in  different  positions,  as  it  will  furnish  a 
very  good  lesson  for  practice.  The  door  can 
be  placed  entirely  below  the  horizontal  line 
or  above  it,  and  to  the  right  or  left  of  the 
principal  line  of  vision,  at  any  distance  de- 
sired. The  change  of  appearance  through 
the  variation  of  the  position  of  the  door  is 


same  general  rule  applies  with  the  door  in 
any  perspective  position,  it  is  recommended 
that  the  position  be  changed  and  the  effects 
thereof  studied  until  the  student  is  a  thorough 
master  of  this  simple  illustration  of  perspect- 
ive. 

The  difference  in  the  appearance  of  objects 


ARCHITECTURAL    PERSPECTIVE. 


69 


placed  in  various  perspective  positions  is 
shown  in  Fig.  52,  by  contrasting  the  per- 
spective view  of  the  post  B,  which  is  to  the 
left  of  P  L  V  and  which  Extends  above  the 
H  L,  with  the  perspective  view  of  the  post 
A,  which  is  to  the  right  of  the  P  L  V  and 
which  has  its  top  below  the  H  L.  In  this 
diagram  there  are  two  measuring  points,  the 
reason  for  which  is  that  one  perspective  is  to 
the  left  of  the  P  L  V  and  the  other  to  the 
right,  which  requires  that  each  view  shall 
have  its  own  measuring  point,  as  shown. 
These  two  posts  are  so  placed  that  all  retreat- 
ing lines  are  parallel  to  the  P  L  V,  therefore 
but  one  vanishing  point  is  required  for  both. 
When  objects  are  placed  in  this  position  they 
.are  said  to  be  in  parallel  perspective.  The 
post  B  extends  above  H  L,  which  is  the  level 
of  the  eye,  consequently  we  cannot  see  the 
plane  which  represents  the  top  of  it.  All 
that  can  be  seen  of  B  in  its  position  from  the 
station  point  are  the  two  sides,  as  shown. 
The  post  A  is  much  shorter  than  B,  and  its 
top  falls  below  the  H  L  ;  therefore  we  are 
able  to  see  two  sides  and  the  plane  which 
represents  its  top.  By  going  further  and 
supposing  A  to  be  a  transparent  figure  and 
representing  by  dotted  lines  those  which  we 
could  not  see  in  an  opaque  object,  we  are 
able  to  correctly  outline  every  plane  in  the 


figure — the  four  sides,  top  and  bottom,  as 
shown.  The  principles  and  methods  of  draw- 
ing Fig.  52  are  essentially  the  same  as  those 
of  the  previous  diagram  and  need  no  further 
explanation. 

For  the  purpose  of  showing  the  same  ob- 
jects in  a  different  position  of  perspective, 
and  so  that  but  one  measuring  point  will  be 
required,  another  diagram  is  given  represent- 
ing both  posts  to  the  right  of  the  P  L  V,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  53.  The  explanation  of  the 
two  preceding  diagrams  will  enable  the 
learner  to  readily  comprehend  the  ideas  pre- 
sented in  Fig.  53,  as  the  principles  are  the 
same  as  already  delineated.  We  will  now 
leave  these  diagrams  to  the  practice  of  the 
student,  recommending  that  they  be  made 
larger  than  here  given,  and  that  the  object 
to  be  placed  in  perspective  be  disposed  in 
different  positions  until  the  principles  in- 
volved are  thoroughly  understood. 

We  have  thus  far  only  considered  objects 
in  such  positions  that  the  retreating  lines 
were  parallel  with  the  P  L  V,  which  is  on  an 
angle  of  90  degrees  and  therefore  made  the 
center  of  vision — the  vanishing  point  for  all 
retreating  lines.  If  an  object  is  turned  either 
to  the  right  or  left,  as  indicated  in  Fig.  54, 
then  the  retreating  lines  are  not  parallel  to 
the  P  L  V,  and  the  center  of  vision  is  no 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOR   MECHANICS. 


longer  the  vanishing  point.  When  an  object 
is  placed  at  an  angle  to  the  P  L  V  it  removes 
the  vanishing  point  from  the  center  of  vision 
and  requires  one  at  the  right  and  left  of  the 
center  of  vision  to  enable  the  draftsman  to 
correctly  represent  the  retreating  lines.  The 
latter  still  remain  horizontal,  consequently 
their  vanishing  points  will  be  found  in  the 
horizontal  line,  their  positions  depending  upon 
the  amount  the  object  is  turned  from  the 
ground  line.  When  an  object  is  turned  at  an 
angle  from  the  S  P  it  is  said  to  be  in  angular 
perspective.  Referring  now  to  Fig.  54,  let 
it  be  required  to  draw  a  figure,  for  example, 
2  feet  square  and  3  feet  high  in  angular  per- 
spective, turning  the  figure  at  an  angle  of  45 
degrees  with  the  station  point.  First  draw  the 
H  L  and  the  P  L  V,  as  in  the  preceding  dia- 
grams. Determine  the  S  P,  and  with  it  as  a 
radius  describe  the  semicircle,  as  shown. 
Measure  off  on  the  semicircle  the  degree 
representing  the  angle  at  which  it  is  desired 
to  have  the  lines  retreat.  Now,  as  pre- 
viously shown,  a  line  drawn  from  the  S  P  at 
an  angle  of  90  degrees  finds  at  its  intersec- 
tion with  the  H  L  a  vanishing  point  for  itself 
and  all  lines  parallel  to  it  ;  so  a  line  drawn 
from  the  S  P  at  any  angle  in  intersecting  the 
H  L  finds  a  vanishing  point  for  all  lines 
running  in  that  direction.     Hence  the  lines 


directed  from  S  P  at  a  angle  of  45  degrees  in 

intersecting  the  H  L  determine  the  vanish- 
ing points,   as  shown.     It  will  also  be  ob- 


Fig.  53.— Showinff  Diflfereut  Positions  of  Perspective,  and  that 
only  one  Measuring  Point  is  Required  for  Objects  Drawn 
in  Similar  Positions.— Scale,  3-16  Inch  to  the  Foot. 

served  that  lines  drawn  from  the  S  P  at  an 
angle  of  45  degrees  strike  the  measuring 
points.     This  may  be  proven  by  taking  C  V 


ARCHITECTURAL    PERSPECTIVE. 


71 


as  a  center  and  S  P  as  a  radius  and  striking- 
the  circle,  as  shown  in  this  and  the  preced- 
ing diagrams.  If  the  object  to  be  drawn  is 
turned  at  any  other  angle  than  45  degrees, 


distance  from  C  V,  as  shown,  letting  A  rep- 
resent the  geometrical  size  of  the  bottom  of 
the  figure  and  also  the  angle  at  which  it  is 
turned   from   the   ground  line    and    station 


Fljr.  64. 


DiagTjtm  Showing  Vanishingr  and  Measuring  Points  when  the  Object  is  Turned  at  an  Ang\e  of  45"  with 
the  Station  Point.— Scale,  3-16  Inch  to  the  Foot. 


then  the  vanishing  points  and  measuring 
points  no  longer  occupy  the  same  positions, 
but  this  point  will  be  explained  in  the  next 
illustration  of  perspective.  To  complete  Fig. 
54,  draw  the  ground  line  at  some  convienient 


point.  To  place  the  entire  figure  in  per- 
spective, draw  from  the  ground  line  at  some 
convenient  distance  from  the  P  L  V  the  first 
perpendicular  line  which  remains  unchanged 
by  perspective,   as  shown  by  B    C .     Next 


72 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOR    MECHANICS. 


draw  the  retreating  ground  lines  from  B'  to 
the  vanishing  points,  then  the  retreating 
lines  of  the  top  from  C  to  the  vanishing 
points,  all  as  shown.  Next  set  off  on  the 
ground  line  the  geometric  scale  from  B'  in 
order  to  determine  the  foreshortening  of  the 
retreating  sides.  The  scale  taken  is  the 
actual  scale  measurement  of  one  of  the  sides 
of  the  square  A,  and  it  is  laid  off  on  the 
ground  line  from  B'  in  both  directions  be- 
cause there  are  two  retreating  sides.  From 
the  end  of  these  scales  draw  the  remaining 
two  retreating  ground  lines  to  the  vanishing 
points,  and  the  points  of  crossing  the  first 


retreating  ground  lines  will  be  the  points 
from  which  to  raise  the  perpendicular  lines, 
which  will  determine  the  perspective  width 
of  the  figure.  The  remaining  top  retreating 
lines  complete  the  figure  and  wiU  be  easily 
understood  from  the  diagram.  The  learner 
should  observe  the  reduction  that  takes 
place  in  the  size  of  objects  when  placed 
in  perspective  positions,  and  that  the  per- 
spective view  changes  as  the  object  is 
moved  either  to  the  right  or  left  of  the 
P  L  V.  An  object  may  also  be  drawn  partly 
in  the  P  L  V,  as  will  be  shown  in  the  next 
diagram. 


DRAWING  PERSPECTIVE  FIGURES. 


We  will  now  take  up  a  figure  which  shows 
the  changes  occurring  when  an  object  is 
placed  at  some  angle  other  than  45  degrees 
with  the  station  point,  and  follow  it  up  in  a 
way  to  involve  more  of  the  principles  and 
points  which  necessarily  have  to  be  consid- 
ered in  architectural  perspective.  The  pre- 
vious diagrams  of  perspective  have  been 
made  to  illustrate  very  plain  objects,  in  order 
that  the  learner  might  the  more  readily  be- 
come familiar  with  the  points  and  principles 
involved.  The  next  step  is  showing  in  a 
practical  manner  a  method  of  drawing  the 
perspective  outlines  of  a  plain  building. 
This  structure  is  not  a  figure  with  a  square 
base,  like  the  previous  one,  but  is  longer 
than  it  is  wide,  and  being  placed  with  the 
end  at  an  angle  of  60  degrees  with  the  sta- 
tion point,  there  is  more  involved  than  in 
any  of  the  previous  perspective  figures.  Re- 
ferring to  Fig.  55,  draw  the  H  L  and  the 
P  L  V,  and  fix  the  station  point.  C  V  is  the 
center  of  vision  in  the  horizontal  line.  With 
S  P  as  a  center  draw  the  semicircle  and  set 
ofE  a  point  which  will  represent  the  degree 


of  the  angle  at  which  it  is  desired  the  end 
shall  retreat.  In  this  case  it  is  made  60  de- 
grees ;  therefore  a  line  drawn  from  S  P  at 
an  angle  of  60  degrees  will,  at  the  intersection 
of  the  horizontal  line,  find  a  vanishing  point 
for  all  lines  running  in  that  direction.  A 
line  drawn  at  right  angles  to  the  one  of  60 
degrees  will,  at  the  intersection  of  the  hori- 
zontal line,  find  a  vanishing  point  for  all  lines 
running  in  that  direction.  As  V  P  i  and  V 
P  2  must  each  have  a  measuring  point,  the 
next  thing  in  order  is  to  locate  them.  This 
may  be  done  by  taking  V  P  i  for  a  center 
with  S  P  as  a  radius  and  striking  the  arc 
shown  by  dotted  line,  cutting  the  H  L  and 
establishing  M  P  2,  as  shown.  Take  V  P  2 
for  a  center  with  S  P  as  a  radius  and  strike 
the  arc,  cutting  the  H  L,  locating  M  P  i,  as 
shown.  Next  draw  the  ground  line  and  then 
the  nearest  upright  corner  which  remains 
unchanged  by  perspective.  In  this  case  the 
corner  is  made  in  the  P  L  V,  .so  all  that  is 
necessary  is  to  set  off  the  hight  on  this  line, 
as  shown  at  A.  Now  draw  the  retreating 
lines  to  the  vanishing  points,  V  P  i  and  V  P  2, 


74 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOR    MECHANICS. 


VP3I 


SP- 


Flg.  55.— Diagram  Showing  Change  of  Vanishing  and  Measuring  Points  when  the 
not  at  an  Angle  of  45°  with  the  Station  Point;  also  Method  of  Obtaining  the 
Points  for  Koof  Lines.— Scale,  3-16  Inch  to  the  Foot. 


Object  is 
Vanishing 


DRAWING    PERSPECTIVE   FIGURES. 


76 


Next  comes  the  foreshortening  of  the  sides. 
The  plan  shows  the  geometrical  size  of  the 
ground  plan  and  the  angle  at  which  it  is 
turned  from  the  ground  line.  Take  the  ac- 
tual scale  measurements  from  the  plan  and 
set  them  off  on  the  ground  line,  the  width  to 
the  right  of  the  P  L  V  and  the  length  to  the 
left.  These  are  the  geometric  scales,  and 
are  represented  in  the  diagram  by  G  S  and 
G  S'.  From  the  end  of  these  scales  draw 
lines  to  the  measuring  points,  M  P  i  and 
M  P  2,  as  shown.  The  points  of  crossing  the 
retreating  ground  lines  will  be  the  points 
from  which  to  draw  the  two  remaining  up- 
right corners  of  the  figure.  In  developing 
the  roof  lines  first  set  off  the  hight  of  roof, 
which  in  this  case  is  assumed  to  be  as  repre- 
sented by  A  B.  The  hights  should  be  set  off 
according  to  the  scale  of  the  geometrical  ele- 
vations, and  which  will  be  explained  more 
fully  in  another  diagram  by  means  of  a  hight 
line.  The  roof  being  on  an  inclination  causes 
a  portion  of  the  roof  lines  to  retreat  upward 
at  an  inclination,  consequently  we  must  find 
a  vanishing  point  for  them.  As  we  have  as- 
sumed the  hight  of  roof  to  be  A  B,  draw  a 
line  from  B  to  V  P  2.  Find  the  center  of 
the  gable,  which  may  be  done  by  drawing  a 
line  from  the  center  of  the  end  geometrical 
scale  to  M  P  I  and  raising  the  vertical  dotted 


line  from  the  crossing  of  the  retreating  end 
ground  line.  The  intersection  of  the  verti- 
cal dotted  line  at  C  on  the  line  B  V  P  2  will 
be  the  point  through  which  to  draw  a  line 
from  A,  which  will  at  its  junction  with  a  per- 
pendicular line  raised  from  V  P  2  find  a  van- 
ishing point  for  the  upwardly  inclined  lines 
of  the  roof.  This  point  is  V  P  3.  We  now 
draw  the  further  inclined  retreating  roof  line 
to  V  P  3,  and  then  the  horizontal  retreating 
line  from  C  to  V  P  i,  which  represents  the 
ridge  line. 

We  now  have  one  more  point  to  consider — 
the  inclination  of  the  roof  line  on  the  further 
side  of  the  gable,  which  is  downward,  hence 
we  must  look  downward  for  a  vanishing 
point  for  all  lines  running  in  that  direction. 
To  determine  this  point  measure  down  from 

V  P  2  the  distance  V  P  2  is  from  V  P  3, 
establishing  V  P  4.     A  line  drawn  from  C  to 

V  P  4  will  cut  the  top  of  the  post  on  the 
further  comer  of  the  gable  and  thus  com- 
plete the  figure. 

USE    OF    HIGHT    LINES. 

A  striking  illustration  of  the  effect  of  plac- 
ing an  object  in  various  perspective  positions 
and  the  use  of  hight  lines  or  vertical  scales  is 
presented  in  Fig.  56.  In  the  design  A  and 
B  represent  the  geometrical  size  of  a  frame, 


76 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOR    MECHANICS. 


as,  for  example,  a  transom,  A  showing  it 
standing  on  end  and  B  resting  on  its  side. 
C,  D,  E,  F  and  G  are  of  the  same  size  as  A 
and  B,  but  represent  the  object  in  different 


lying  flat  on  the  picture  plane,  which  is  the 
surface  on  which  the  drawing  is  made.  G  is 
a  perspective  of  the  frame  standing  on  the 
long  side  in  an  upright  position.     It  is  of 


MP2 


Fig.  56.— Diagram   Showing   Effect  of  Different  Perspective  Positions  and  the  Use  of  a  Hight 
Line  or  Vertical  Scale.— Scale,  3-16  Inch  to  the  Foot. 


perspective  positions.  C  and  D  represent 
perspective  views  of  the  object  standing  on 
the  narrow  end.  C  and  D  are  both  the  same 
size,  but  C  being  more  distant  than  D  ap- 
pears smaller.  E  and  F  show  different  per- 
spectives of  the   frame  as  it  would   appear 


the  same  size  as  the  other  perspectives,  but 
its  appearance,  as  influenced  by  position  and 
distance  from  the  eye,  is  greatly  changed 
from  the  other  figures,  as  may  be  seen  from 
an  inspection  of  the  drawing.  The  effect  of 
different  positions  is  shown  very  forcibly  by 


DRAWING    PERSPECTIVE    FIGURES. 


77 


C,  D,  E,  F  and  G.  It  is  also  obvious  that 
objects,  however  placed,  have  the  same 
vanishing  points  when  their  lines  and  planes 
are  parallel. 

The  ground  line  is  usually  assumed  to  be 
the  lower  edge  of  the  picture  plane,  all  hori- 
zontal scales  being  measured  in  this  line, 
and  it  is  simpler  to  have  the  nearest  edge  of 
the  object  touch  this  line,  as  shown  by  D 
and  E.  When  objects  touch  this  line  they 
are  in  the  extreme  foreground.  When  ob- 
jects do  not  touch  this  line,  but  instead  are 
drawn  back  of  it,  as  C,  F  and  G,  the  scales 
are  still  set  off  on  the  ground  line  or  plane 
of  measures,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  and 
transferred,  as  will  be  shown  by  reference  to 
the  diagram.  This  is  necessary  in  order  to 
preserve  the  actual  proportions  of  the  differ- 
ent parts  to  each  other.  To  make  the  dia- 
gram draw  the  H  L,  the  P  L  V  and  the 
ground  line  in  the  usual  manner,  also  fix 
the  station  point  and  the  measuring  points, 
as  shown.  Now,  it  will  be  observed  that  C 
is  set  back  a  considerable  distance  from  the 
ground  line.  This  distance  is  assumed  when 
it  is  not  definitely  known.  In  this  case  the 
distance  is  assumed  to  be  V  H,  and  a  line 


drawn  from  H  to  M  P  I  will,  in  crossing  the 
retreating  ground  line,  determine  the  per- 
spective distance  from  the  ground  line  from 
which  to  start  the  outline  of  C.  In  order  to 
determine  the  hight  it  is  necessary  to  have  a 
vertical  scale,  which  is  represented  by  V  S. 
Oh  this  line  set  off  the  actual  hight  of  the 
object  as  taken  from  A,  and  draw  the  line 
from  S  to  the  V  P,  which  will  determine  the 
perspective  hight  of  C.  The  perspective 
width  is  determined  by  setting  off  on  the 
ground  line  the  actual  scale  width  of  A,  as 
H  I,  and  drawing  the  line  from  I  to  M  P  I, 
as  shown.  The  outline  of  D  is  drawn  in  ex- 
actly the  same  manner,  the  only  difference 
being  the  position,  which  is  such  that  its 
nearest  line  touches  the  ground  line.  E  and 
F  are  drawn  in  like  manner,  but  the  object 
lying  flat  on  the  picture  plane  without  any 
hight  being  represented  no  vertical  scale  is 
needed.  G,  which  is  a  perspective  of  B  in 
an  upright  position,  requires  a  vertical  scale, 
as  represented  by  V^  SI  We  have  now  illus- 
trated the  use  of  the  hight  line  or  vertical  scale 
and  shown  that  all  distances,  however  remote 
or  small,  may  be  kept  proportional  and  deter- 
mined by  the  horizontal  and  vertical  scales. 


FORESHORTENING. 


It  has  been  shown  that  perspective  reduces 
and  foreshortens  objects,  and  it  now  remains 
to  present  another  method  of  producing  the 
same  result  in  the  reduction  and  foreshorten- 
ing of  objects  placed  in  perspective  positions, 
in  order  that  the  student  may  have  a  choice 
of  methods  and  be  able  to  use  that  which  will 
best  serve  the  purpose.  For  example,  take 
plan  A  of  Fig.  56  and  proceed  to  place  it  in 
a  perspective  position  as  if  it  were  the  floor 
plan  of  a  frame  or  the  outside  sills.  Refer- 
ring to  Fig.  57,  draw  the  horizontal  line 
and  the  P  L  V.  Fix  the  station  point  and 
ground  line  by  assuming  some  convenient 
distances,  as  shown.  Next  place  the  plan  A 
at  an  angle  of  45  degrees  with  the  P  L  V  and 
make  the  corner  D  the  same  distance  above 
the  horizontal  line  as  it  is  from  S  on  the 
ground  line  below. 

The  vanishing  points  are  found  by  run- 
ning parallel  with  the  sides  of  the  plan  A, 
starting  from  the  S  P  and  continuing  until 
the  horizontal  line  is  intersected,  as  shown 
by  V  P  I  and  V  P  2.     This  method  of  find- 

78 


ing  the  vanishing  points  for  all  horizontal 
lines  is  very  simple,  and  is  practically  the 
same  as  the  method  giveii  in  connection 
with  previous  figures.  To  many,  perhaps, 
this  method  will  present  some  advantages, 
as  it  does  not  matter  to  what  angle  the  plan 
A  is  placed  with  the  P  L  V,  for  the  vanish- 
ing points  will  be  found  in  exactly  the  same 
way  as  already  described.  In  this  case  the 
vanishing  points  are  equally  distant  from  C 
on  the  horizontal  line,  but  if  the  plan  A  was 
turned  at  some  other  angle,  then  the  vanish- 
ing points  would  not  be  equidistant  from  C. 
They  would  still  be  found  somewhere  in  the 
horizontal  line,  but  further  removed  toward 
and  from  the  center,  according  to  the  angle 
at  which  the  plan  is  placed.  The  measuring 
points  and  the  geometric  scale  G  S  for  the 
foreshortening  of  the  retreating  sides  of  the 
object  have  been  thoroughly  explained  in  the 
previous  figures.  They  have  been  drawn  in 
this  figure  to  show  that  the  two  methods 
produce  like  results  when  closely  followed. 
Draw  the  perspective  B,  using  the  geometric 


FORESHOR  TENING. 


79 


rig.  57.— Diagrram  Showingr  Another  Method  of  ForeshorteninK  in  Pei-spective  and  that  the 
Same  Result  is  Produced  when  the  Principles  are  Accurately  Observed.— Scale,  3-16  Inch 
to  the  Foot. 


80 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOR    MECHANICS. 


scales  and  measuring  points  to  determine  the 
foreshortening  of  the  retreating  sides,  as 
shown  by  the  first  method. 

We  will  now  proceed  to  show  the  second 
method  of  foreshortening.  Draw  lines  from 
the  corners  of  the  plan  A  toward  the  S  P  and 
from  the  points  of  intersection  with  the  hori- 
zontal line  drop  lines  perpendicularly  to  the 
ground  line.  The  intersection  of  these  lines 
with  the  retreating  ground  lines  will  deter- 
mine the  perspective  widths  of  the  retreating 
side  of  the  object,  and  which  will  be  seen  to 
produce  exactly  the  same  result  as  the  former 
method.  There  is  a  line  called  the  picture 
plane  line,  shown  in  the  sketch  by  P  P  L. 
This  runs  parallel  with  the  horizontal  line, 
and  by  the  second  method  of  foreshortening 
it  may  be  assumed  at  any  convenient  distance 
from  the  plan  when  it  is  not  required  to  make 
the  foreshortening  correspond  with  another 
method.  In  this  case  the  picture  plane  line 
and  the  horizontal  line  are  regarded  as  coin- 
ciding in  order  to  produce  the  same  effect  in 
the  foreshortening.  The  second  method  has 
the  advantage  that  the  plan  A  can  be  changed 
to  any  position  and  brought  very  close  to  the 
picture  plane  line  if  desired.  The  closer  it  is 
brought  to  this  line  the  less  the  reduction  in 
the  perspective  figure.  Imagine  the  plan  A 
brought  down  until  the  picture  plane  line 


coincides  with  the  horizontal  line,  and  they 
become  one  and  the  same  ;  then  it  is  easy  to 
see  that  perpendicular  lines  drawn  from  the 
picture  plane  line  would  increase  to  a  consid- 
erable extent  the  size  of  the  perspective  fig- 
ure B.  Thus  far  the  perspective  D  has  been 
considered  without  regard  to  hight.  It  is 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  if  perspective 
reduces  an  object  in  length  and  width  the 
hight  must  also  in  some  cases  be  reduced  in 
order  that  the  figure  may  be  kept  propor- 
tional. For  this  purpose  we  must  establish 
a  hight  line,  which  is  done  in  the  following 
manner  :  Run  lines  parallel  with  the  side  of 
the  plan  to  intersect  the  picture  plane  line 
and  from  the  intersection  draw  perpendicular 
lines  to  the  ground  line,  which  will  establish 
the  lines  on  which  to  set  off  the  hight  of  the 
drawing.  These  lines  are  called  hight  lines. 
In  Fig.  57  we  have  produced  a  hight  line  for 
each  side  of  the  object,  but  in  this  drawing 
only  one  hight  line  is  required.  Two  hight 
lines  have  been  given,  to  show  that  it  does 
not  matter  to  which  side  the  hight  line  is 
produced,  as  the  result  is  the  same.  Assum- 
ing that  the  object  has  a  certain  hight,  set  it 
off  on  the  hight  lines,  as  H  T  or  H'  T',  and 
the  lines  drawn  from  the  vanishing  points 
through  the  points  T  and  T'  will  establish  the 
perspective  hight,  as  shown.     It  will  be  seen 


FORESHORTENING. 


81 


by  referring  to  the  drawing  that  the  real 
hight  of  the  perspective  figure  has  been  con- 
siderably lessened  from  the  actual  hight  of 
the  object,  as  set  off  on  the  hight  lines.  We 
have  now  established  the  use  of  a  hight  line 
and  a  second  method  of  foreshortening  the 
retreating  sides  of  objects  in  perspective.  In 
our  last  drawing  we  combined  the  two  meth- 
ods to  show  that  each  produced  the  same 
result  when  certain  points  were  observed  ; 
but  if  the  points  referred  to  were  not  ob- 
served, then  the  result  would  be  vastly  differ- 


ent. The  latter  method  has  a  very  decided 
advantage  over  the  former  in  the  manner  of 
producing  the  perspective,  as  the  actual 
proportions  of  the  objects  to  be  placed 
in  perspective  may  be  retained  with  a 
much  less  reduction  than  usually  follows 
by  the  former  method.  We  will  now  pro- 
ceed to  some  drawings  which  will  set 
forth  the  advantages  of  the  second  method 
of  foreshortening  and  maintaining  the  ac- 
tual proportions  in  producing  perspective 
.  figures. 


CARPENTERS'  TOOL  CHEST  IN  PERSPECTIVE. 


If  the  student  has  thoroughly  learned  the 
principles  that  have  been  set  forth  in  the 
preceding  figures  he  should  now  be  able  to 
more  readily  grasp  the  ideas  of  perspective, 
and  not  be  at  all  discouraged  as  the  lines  in- 
crease in  number  with  the  more  complicated 
figures.  We  will  take  for  the  next  exam- 
ple a  carpenters'  tool  chest,  which  is  a  plain, 
easy  figure,  with  length,  width  and  hight, 
and  an  object  which  will  bring  into  use  the 
best  method  of  making  perspective  drawings. 

Referring  to  Fig.  58,  we  will  produce  a  per- 
spective figure  in  accordance  with  a  plan, 
side  and  end  elevations.  Draw  the  horizon- 
tal line  and  P  L  V,  and  find  the  vanishing 
points  as  previously  given.  The  ground  line 
and  picture  plane  line  are  then  assumed  at 
convenient  distances.  Draw  the  plan  to  the 
actual  geometric  scale  of  the  chest,  and  at 
an  angle  of  45  degrees  with  the  P  L  V,  as 
shown.  The  two  outer  lines  represent  the 
base  and  size  of  the  top,  the  two  inner  lines 
represent  the  size  of  the  panel  in  the  top. 
Next  lay  off  on  the  inside  base  line  the  exact 
location  of  the  stiles  of  the  panels  for  the 

82 


side  and  end  of  the  chest.  These  are  repre- 
sented by  arrow-pointed  marks,  as  shown. 
The  marks  for  determining  the  perspective 
size  of  the  top  panel  have  been  transferred 
to  the  outside  line  of  the  base,  as  the  same 
line  represents  the  h\\\  size  of  the  top.  The 
hight  line  is  drawn  by  running  parallel  with 
the  plan  to  picture  plane  line,  and  from  this 
intersection  perpendicular  to  the  ground 
line,  as  shown.  Next  draw  the  retreating 
ground  lines.  Set  off  the  hight  on  the  hight 
line  according  to  the  actual  scale  of  the  ele- 
vations and  draw  the  retreating  line  of  the 
top  and  end  through  this  point  to  the  P  L  V, 
which  will  establish  the  perspective  hight  in 
full.  The  perspective  hights  of  the  different 
members  are  determined  by  setting  off  the 
actual  scale  of  the  elevation  on  the  diagonal 
line  across  the  end  of  chest  and  drawing  lines 
from  the  vanishing  point  through  the  points 
set  off  on  the  diagonal  line  to  the  P  L  V. 
The  reason  for  this  method  of  proceeding  will 
be  made  plain  in  the  next  drawing,  prepared 
especially  for  the  explanation.  The  per- 
spective widths  are  determined  by  drawing 


CARPENTERS'    TOOL    CHEST   IN  PERSPECTIVE, 


83 


Pig.  5«.— Practical  Application  of  tbe  Best  Method  of   Produeintr   a   Perspective  Figure.— 

Scale,  %  Inch  to  the  Foot. 


84 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOR    MECHANICS. 


lines  toward  tlie  S  P  until  they  intersect  the 
picture  plane  line,  and  from  this  point  then 
drop  to  the  perspective  figure  on  which  it  is 
desired  to  establish  the  proportional  perspec- 
tive widths.  The  diagram  is  very  plain,  and 
if  carefully  studied  will  convey  to  the  mind 
of  the  student  the  method  of  establishing 
perspective  distances  better  than  any  further 
description  can  do. 

In  Fig.  59  is  represented  a  partial  sketch 
of  Fig.  58,  representing  the  end  of  the  chest 
in  perspective  in  open  Hnes  without  shading, 
in  order  to  show  more  clearly  the  use  of  the 
hight  line  and  the  scale.  The  hight  line  is 
found  by  running  parallel  with  the  side  of  the 
plan  to  the  picture  plane  line  and  from  this 
point  perpendicular  to  the  ground  line.  The 
perspective  hight  is  found  by  setting  off  on 
the  hight  line  the  actual  scale  hight  of  the 
elevation,  as  A  B,  and  drawing  a  line  from 
the  vanishing  point  through  the  point  B  to 
the  P  L  V,  or  central  line  of  vision,  as  shown. 
This  establishes  the  full  perspective  hight, 
but  as  there  are  several  different  members 
which  go  to  make  this  hight  we  must  have 
some  means  whereby  we  can  set  off  the  hight 
of  each  member  respectively.  It  is  plain  to 
be  seen  that  we  cannot  start  from  A  on  the 
ground  line,  and  if  we  were  to  start  from  the 
retreating  ground  line  at  C  and  set  off  the 


hights  according  to  the  actual  bights  of  the 
elevation  scale  it  would  make  the  drawing  all 


Fig.  59.— Diagram  Showing  the  Use  of  Hight  Lines  and 
Scales.— Scale,  %  Inch  to  the  Foot. 

out  of  proportion.     The  cause  of  this  is  ap- 
parent, as  the  hight  line  A   B  reduces  the 


CARPENTERS'    TOOL    CHEST   IN  PERSPECTIVE. 


86 


hight  of  the  perspective  from  that  of  the  ele- 
.vation  the  distance  from  A  to  C,  so  that  the 
actual  hight  of  the  perspective  is  the  distance 
C  B.  Thus  the  scale  of  the  perspective  is 
reduced,  and  in  order  to  set  o£E  proportional 
hights  on  the  hight  line  C  B  we  must  work 
out  a  proportional  scale  or  adopt  another 
method  whereby  we  can  use  the  elevation 
scale.  It  is  a  very  difficult  matter  to  work 
out  a  scale  for  a  perspective  drawing  that 
would  exactly  correspond  with  the  elevation 
scale,  and  even  when 'the  scale  is  found  it 
might  be  a  very  difficult  one  by  which  to 
draw,  on  account  of  the  small  divisions  it  is 
often  necessary  to  make  to  carry  out  the  pro- 
portion of  the  different  parts  to  each  other. 
For  example,  take  Fig.  59,  and  with  an  ele- 
vation scale  of  ^  inch  to  the  foot,  the  scale 
of  the  perspective  would  be  a  little  less  than 
1^  inch  to  the  foot,  which  would  be  found  a 
very  inconvenient  scale  by  which  to  transfer 
hights  from  the  elevation  to  the  perspective. 
The  method  of  figuring  out  the  scale  is  as 
follows  : 

Take  the  scale  of  the  elevation  in  six- 
teenths for  the  third  term,  which  is  8  ;  for 
the  second  term  take  the  actual  hight  of  the 
perspective  in  sixteenths  on  the  hight  line 
from  C  to  B,  which  is  ^j4,  and  for  the  first 
term  take  the  scale  hight  of  the  elevation  in 


sixteenths,  which  is  1 3.  We  now  have  a  math- 
ematical expression,  as  follows  :  13  :  9)^  :: 
8  :  to  the  scale  required.  The  operation  is 
easy — gj4  X8-*-i3  =  5  11-13  sixteenths  of 
an  inch  to  the  foot,  the  scale  of  the  perspec- 
tive drawing  by  which  the  hights  would  have 
to  be, established  if  set  off  on  the  line  from 
C  to  B. 

Such  scales  are  not  practical,  and  only  tend 
to  worry  and  confuse  the  mind  of  the  stu- 
dent. A  very  simple  and  practical  method 
of  setting  off  the  hights  of  different  members 
is  by  means  of  a  scale  line,  which  may  be 
easily  drawn  after  the  full  perspective  hight 
has  been  determined.  Take  the  actual  scale 
hight  of  the  elevation,  which  is  shown  in 
the  perspective  by  A  B,  and  set  it  off  from 
S  to  L,  intersecting  the  retreating  ground 
line.  This  line  we  will  call  the  scale  line, 
and  the  hight  of  the  different  members  may 
be  set  off  on  this  line  according  to  the  eleva- 
tion scale  without  any  complications  of  fig- 
ures and  changing  of  scales.  The  distances 
are  set  off  on  this  line  as  indicated  by  the 
arrow  points,  and  lines  drawn  from  the  van- 
ishing point  through  these  points  to  the  P  L 
V  will  establish  the  perspective  hights  of  all 
the  different  members  to  the  finest  point  it 
is  possible  to  obtain  and  in  the  most  prac- 
tical manner. 


ELEVATIONS  IN  PERSPECTIVE. 


In  previous  lessons  the  principles  of  per- 
spective drawing  have  been  pretty  clearly 
set  forth,  so  that  now  the  mind  of  the  stu- 
dent should  be  thoroughly  imbued  with  the 
subject  and  ready  for  the  introduction  of  fig- 
ures which  will  lead  him  to  the  very  point 
he  has  sought  to  obtain — the  making  of  per- 
spective elevations.  From  experience  we 
know  this  to  be  the  most  desired  part  upon 
which  those  interested  in  drawing  are  seek- 
ing specific  instructions,  and  that  it  would 
be  very  difficult  to  successfully  instruct  be- 
ginners in  the  art  by  means  of  a  few  com- 
plicated figures  only  partially  explained. 
Hence  the  student  has  been  advanced  step 
by  step  to  a  point  where  he  can  readily 
grasp  the  principles  of  perspective  in  its 
most  complicated  forms  and  master  the  work 
which  has  been  the  object  of  his  study. 

There  remains  only  a  few  more  points  to 
be  explained,  and  these  for  the  most  part 
will  be  the  methods  of  locating  and  finding 
the  vanishing  points  for  roof  lines,  as  it  is 
here  the  beginner  will  experience  the  great- 
est difficulties.     When  the   roof  vanishing' 

86 


points  are  located  they  determine  the  direc- 
tion of  the  roof  lines,  and  by  observing  the 
scale  on  the  hight  line  the  actual  propor- 
tions are  maintained  and  the  whole  work 
soon  becomes  as  easy  as  plain  geometrical 
drawing.  We  will  take  for  an  example  the 
making  of  a  perspective  elevation  from  the 
floor  plan,  front  and  side  elevations,  which 
are  represented  in  Figs.  60,  61  and  62. 
These  figures  are  the  plain  geometrical 
drawings,  and  will  be  readily  understood. 

The  first  step  is  to  draw  the  floor  plan  at 
the  angle  it  is  desired  to  place  the  perspec- 
tive ;  in  this  case  45  degrees,  as  indicated 
in  Fig.  6;^.  After  drawing  the  plan  at  the 
angle  required,  draw  the  picture  plane  line, 
which  may  be  assumed  a  short  distance  be- 
low the  plan.  The  greater  the  distance 
below  the  plan  the  greater  will  be  the  re- 
duction in  the  perspective,  as  will  be  seen 
by  reference  to  Fig.  6^.  Next  establish  the 
ground  line  a  sufficient  distance  below  the 
picture  plane  line  to  admit  of  drawing  the 
perspective  between  the  two  lines.  We  now 
assume  the  horizontal  line  and  station  point 


ELEVATIONS    IN  PERSPECTIVE. 


87 


and  determine  the  vanishing  points  for  the 
horizontal  Hnes  the  same  as  described  in 
connection  with  previous  figures.  In  this 
drawing  the   horizontal  line  has  been  as- 


FiK.  60.— Floor  Plan.— Scale,  1-16  Inch  to  the  Foot. 

sumed  8  feet  above  the  ground  line,  and  the 
station  point  or  point  of  sight  has  been  fixed 
80  feet  from  the  picture  plane  line  down- 
ward on  the  line  P  L  V.  In  this  drawing 
the   lines    for   determining    the   vanishing 


points  have  not  been  carried  out  to  their  full 
length,  as  it  would  make  the  drawing  un- 
necessarily large  ;  hence  we  give  the  above 
figures,  which  will  enable  the  learner  to  read- 
ily find  the  vanishing  points  without  further 
instructions.  The  direction  of  the  vanishing 
points  is  so  plainly  indicated  that  it  is  hardly 
possible  to  mistake  their  terminations.  H  L 
is  the  hight  line,  which  has  been  produced 
the  same  as  described  in  connection  with 
Figs.  57  and  58.  Set  off  the  full  hight  of  the 
gable  on  the  hight  line,  as  taken  from  Fig.  61, 
and  represented  in  Fig.  6^  by  H  L  ;  then  a 
line  drawn  from  L'  to  the  right  hand  vanish- 
ing point  will  cut  the  top  of  the  gable  in  the 
perspective  figure  and  determine  its  perspec- 
tive hight.  Just  where  the  point  of  gable 
will  touch  this  line  may  be  determined  by 
drawing  the  dotted  line  from  the  center  of 
the  gable  cornice  line  toward  the  station 
point  to  the  intersection  of  the  picture  plane 
line,  thence  perpendicularly  to  D.  A  line 
from  D  to  the  left  vanishing  point  represents 
the  ridge  line.  The  points  of  the  rear  end 
of  gable  may  be  located  in  the  same  manner 
that  point  D  was  found.  Set  off  on  the  hight 
line  the  hight  from  ground  line  to  the  eaves, 
as  H  A,  and  a  line  from  A  to  the  right  van- 
ishing point  will  cut  the  lower  corners  of  the 
front  gable  and  locate  C  and  B,     A  line  from 


88 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOR    MECHANICS. 


C  extended  through.  D  will,  on  intersecting 
a  perpendicular  line  from  the  right  vanishing 
point,  determine  the  vanishing  point  for  the 
upwardly  inclined  lines  of  the  gable  cornice  ; 
likewise  a  line  from  D  extended  downward 
through  B  will  locate  the  vanishing  point  for 
the  downward  lines. 

H'  A'  is  the  hight  H  A  transferred  to  rep- 
resent the  hight  from  the  retreating  ground 
line  to  the  eaves  by  the  same  method  as  was 
shown  by  Fig.  59.  This  line  is  used  for  set- 
ting off  the  hights  of  different  members  from 
the  retreating  ground  line  to  the  eaves.  A 
change  in  the  location  of  this  line  will  some- 
times produce  changes  in  the  perspective, 
and  the  student  should  use  considerable  care 
in  placing  the  position  of  this  line.  It  is 
best  to  keep  it  as  near  the  principal  line  of 
vision  as  possible.  By  observing  this  line 
closely  it  will  aid  very  much  in  determining 
the  proportional  hights  of  different  members 
and  is  as  accurate  as  any  method  of  which  I 
have  knowledge.  The  dotted  lines  drawn 
from  the  plan  toward  the  picture  plane  line 
and  from  this  intersection  perpendicularly  to 
the  perspective  show  clearly  how  the  chim- 
ney, door  and  window  frames  and  the  vari- 
ous other  parts  are  located  and  proportioned 
in  the  perspective  elevation.  There  is  an- 
other little  point  which  may  be  explained  in 


regard  to  obtaining  the  hip  lines  of  the  porch 
roof  in  the  perspective  figure.  The  line 
III  locates  the  outside  corner  of  hip,  then 
line  I  2  on  the  plan  represents  the  plan  of 
hip,  and  following  the  line  222  locate  the 
termination  of  the  hip  against  the  building 
in  the  perspective  figure,  as  shown. 


Fig.  61.— Front  Elevation.— Scale,  1-16  Inch  to  the  Foot. 

Enough  has  now  been  explained  to  enable 
the  learner  to  study  out  for  himself  any 
other  portion  of  the  work,  and  there  is  no 
better  way  to  do  it  than  to  practice  on  simi- 
lar drawings  made  to  >^  or  ^  inch  scale.  A 
very  convenient  scale  to  work  out  perspec- 
tives is  J^  inch  to  the  foot,  and  a  better  pro- 
portion for  the  perspective  figures  will  result 


ELEVATIONS   IN  PERSPECTIVE. 


89 


by  making  the  station  point  80  feet  from  the 
horizontal  line. 

With  one  more  diagram  to  make  plain  the 
method  of  determining  roof  lines  and  van- 
ishing points,  we  will  bring  the  subject  to  a 
close.  In  this  illustration,  Fig.  64,  the  dia- 
gram  is  made   open  in  order  to  avoid  too 


Fig.  62.— Side  (Left)  Elevation.— Scale,  1-16  Inch  to  the  Foot. 

many  lines  and  to  show  more  clearly  the  exact 
manner  of  locating  the  points  necessary  for 
producing  the  perspective.  This  figure  is 
similar  to  Fig.  63,  and  shows  the  extension 
of  the  lines  to  the  vanishing  points  and  also 
the  manner  of  determining  the  amount  of 
cornice  projection.  The  plan  has  a  line 
drawn  around  it  representing  the  width  of 


the  cornice,  and  the  two  dotted  lines  from 
the  opposite  corners  of  the  plan  show  plainly 
how  the  cornice  projections  are  determined 
in  the  perspective.  The  picture  plane  line, 
the  ground  line,  the  horizontal  line  and  the 
vanishing  points  for  the  horizontal  lines  are 
made  in  the  usual  manner. 

The  station  point  has  been  fixed  at  80  feet 
from  the  picture  plane  line,  as  in  the  previ- 
ous figure.  H  L  represents  the  hight  line, 
on  which  set  off  the  full  hight  of  the  gable 
H  L,  according  to  the  elevation,  Fig.  61, 
and  draw  the  line  L  V  P  2.  Set  off  on  the 
hight  line  the  distance  from  the  ground  to 
top  of  plate,  as  H  T,  and  a  line  drawn  from 
this  point  to  V  P  2  will  cut  the  corners  of 
the  gable  on  the  wall  line,  as  shown  at  A 
and  B.  The  line  A,  V  P  i  represents  the 
plate  on  the  wall  line.  The  line  L  V  P  2 
cuts  the  ridge  of  the  roof  on  the  plane  of  the 
wall  line  of  the  gable,  and  the  peak  of  the 
gable  is  located  by  carrying  the  dotted  line 
from  the  center  of  the  plan  into  the  per- 
spective, locating  the  point  C.  The  point  D 
is  located  in  the  same  manner,  and  repre- 
sents the  peak  of  the  gable  at  the  outer  edge 
of  the  cornice.  A  line  from  D  to  V  P  i  rep- 
resents the  ridge  line,  as  shown.  The  roof 
vanishing  points  will  be  found  somewhere 
in  a  perpendicular  line  directly  above  and 


90 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOR    MECHANICS. 


below  the  vanishing  point  for  the  horizontal 
lines  of  the  gable.  A  line  from  A  drawn 
through  C  and  extended  to  intersect  the 
perpendicular  line  through  V  P  2  will  estab- 
lish the  vanishing  point  V  P  3  for  the  up- 
ward inclined  lines  of  the  roof.  A  line  from 
C  drawn  through  B  and  extended  will  at  the 
intersection  of  the  same  perpendicular  line 
establish  V  P  4  for  the  downward  inclined 
lines  of  the  roof.  The  dotted  lines  carried 
into  the  perspective  from  the  plan  show 
plainly  the  location  of  the  points  on  the  rear 
gable,  and  the  dotted  lines  along  the  eaves 
and  up  the  gable  show  the  wall  lines  and 
width  of  cornice. 

Fig.  64  represents  a  plain  roof,  and  no 
doubt  the  learner  will  often  meet  with  roofs 
more  complicated,  but  the  same  principles  if 
closely  observed  will  enable  him  to  solve  the 
problems  as  they  may  come  up  from  time  to 
time.  If  the  roof  is  in  any  way  complicated 
it  is  best  to  draw  a  plan  of  the  roof  in  the 
floor  plan  from  which  one  is  making  the 
perspective,  then  the  different  points  in  the 
roof  may  be  easily  carried  into  the  perspec- 
tive and  correctly  located.  This  will  bring 
to  mind  the  best  methods  of  finding  the 
essential  points  far  better  than  any  other 
way  within  our  knowledge  and  experience. 

In  making  perspective  drawings,  it  is  not 


necessary  that  all  the  lines  that  are  made 
for  the  purpose  of  locating  the  required 
points  be  regarded  as  permanent  lines,  for 
they  may  be  drawn  with  a  pencil,  and  in  fin- 
ishing the  drawing  only  those  lines  need  be 
inked  which  represent  the  real  perspective 
figure. 

If  by  accident  a  line  is  inked  which  is  not 
desired,  the  best  way  to  erase  it  is  with  a 
small  piece  of  sandpaper  folded  over  the 
end  of  a  small  flat  stick  cut  off  at  an  angle  of 
about  60  degrees.  Ink  marks  can  be  very 
effectually  removed  in  this  manner  without 
injuring  the  drawing.  It  is  also  best  to  go 
over  the  part  erased  with  a  good  rubber 
eraser  after  the  sandpaper  application,  as  it 
will  leave  a  better  surface  upon  which  to 
draw  other  lines  if  any  are  to  be  made. 

For  making  real  fine  lines  it  is  often 
necessary  to  point  the  drafting  pen,  as  it  is 
probable  that  one-half  of  the  drawing  pens 
as  they  come  from  the  manufacturer  will 
not  make  a  very  fine  line,  and  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  make  fine  lines  with  a  pen  not  prop- 
erly pointed.  The  points  of  the  pen  should 
be  so  fine  that  they  can  barely  be  distin- 
guished when  looking  directly  at  them.  If 
one  can  see  the  points  like  the  point  of  a 
saw  tooth  that  has  been  in  contact  with  a 
nail,   then  he  cannot  make  fine  lines  with 


V 

J          it* 

|S 

I     1 ' 

1 

'1 

92 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING   FOR   MECHANICS. 


the  pen  in  any  event.  Ordinarily  it  is  only 
a  few  minutes'  work  to  fix  the  pen,  which 
can  be  done  by  screwing  the  nibs  together, 
holding  the  pen  between  finger  and  thumb 
and  applying  it  to  an  oil  stone  in  a  kind  of 
circular  manner,  bearing  only  lightly  on  the 
stone  and  constantly  turning  the  pen  to 
bring  the  nibs  up  to  a  finely  rounded  point. 
They  cannot  be  too  sharp,  and  if  properly 
pointed  they  will  not  cut  the  paper.  Some- 
times it  is  necessary  to  try  them  two  or 
three  times  before  just  the  right  kind  of  a 
point  is  obtained. 

Architectural  drawing  is  a  great  study, 
and  one  which  practically  has  no  end,  for  a 
person  can  spend  a  lifetime  in  the  profes- 
sion and  learn  something  new  to  the  very 
last.  The  chance  for  improvement  and  the 
advancement  of  new  ideas  is  always  open, 
and  none  can  expect  to  know  everything 
there  is  pertaining  to  this  interesting  and 
useful  profession.  We  hope  that  those  who 
are  seeking  information  on  the  subject  dis- 
cussed in  this  work  will  not  be  disappointed 
and  give  up  in  despair  if  their  first  efforts  to 
follow  the  instructions  do  not  prove  alto- 
gether satisfactory.  Remember  that  pa- 
tience and  perseverance  are  necessary 
requirements  for  those  who  follow  the  pro- 
fession.    Beginners  in  the  art  of  drawing 


will  be  likely  to  be  more  or  less  discouraged 
at  the  time  required  to  make  the  drawings, 
especially  if  they  have  other  work  and  can 
only  devote  spare  time  to  the  study.  Bear 
in  mind  that  architectural  drawing  is  a  kind 
of  work  that  cannot  be  rushed  through  like 
sawing  off  a  board.  It  is  work  that  has  to 
be  done  with  judgment,  care  and  precision. 
If  one  has  but  little  time  to  devote  to  the 
study  do  not  try  to  do  too  much  at  once ;  a 
little  work  of  this  kind  well  done  will  prove 
of  more  lasting  benefit  than  a  larger  amount 
poorly  executed.  There  is  scarcely  any- 
thing to  be  learned  of  drawing  from  a 
haphazard  and  hasty  way  of  working.  Start 
right,  even  if  it  does  seem  slow  at  first.  Be 
content  with  the  satisfaction  of  knowing  that 
you  are  working  in  a  way  to  gain  the  best 
results.  Speed  and  proficiency  will  come 
from  practice  and  experience,  and  in  a  short 
time  one  will  find  that  he  can  do  twice  as 
much  work  in  a  given  time  as  he  could  at  the 
start,  and  do  it  better.  We  would  not  advise 
any  one  to  work  too  long  at  a  time  at  draw- 
ing ;  when  tired  and  weary  of  it  lay  it 
aside  for  a  while.  When  the  draftsman 
tires  of  the  work  he  grows  careless  and  in- 
different ;  his  mind  will  be  wandering  from 
the  work  and  poor  results  are  most  sure  to 
follow. 


ELEVATIONS   IN  PERSPECTIVE. 


93 


VP3, 


Fig.  64.— Diagram  Showing  Method  of  Obtaining  Roof  Vanishing  Points  and  Determining  Perspective 
Proportions  of  Cornice,— Scale,  1-32  Inch  to  the  Foot. 


94 


ARCHITECTURAL    DRAWING    FOR    MECHANICS. 


Architecture  is  a  study  of  itself,  and  the 
successful  architect  should  have  nothing  to 
divert  his  attention  from  his  work,  as  it  re- 
quires undivided  attention,  and  to  accom- 
plish the  best  results  he  should  not  work  too 
many  hours  a  day,  but  be  able  to  work  some- 
what at  his  pleasure,  say  from  six  to  eight 
hours  a  day.  It  is  wearisome  to  the  mind  to 
work  continuously  at  it  without  proper  rest.- 
Architectural  drawing  is  a  profession  which 
seems  to  grow  in  demand  and  one  that  still 
commands  a  good  remuneration  for  the  time 
consumed  in  the  work.  The  present  rates 
for  architectural  services  are  based  as  fol- 
lows :  For  drawing  plans,  from  i}4  to  2^ 
per  cent,  of  the  cost  of  construction,  and  5 
per  cent,  for  personal  superintendence.  It 
will  be  readily  seen  from  this  that  an  archi- 
tect would  receive  for  drawing  plans  for  a 
$2,000  residence  from  $35  to  $50,  and  for 
plans  and  personal  superintendence  $100. 
Considering  that  such  plans  could  be  pre- 
pared in  three  or  four  days,  and  that  the 
personal  superintendence  is  only  occasional 
visits  of  a  few  hours  each  in  looking  over 


and  inspecting  the  work  as  it  progresses,  it 
is  a  pretty  fair  consideration  for  services 
rendered.  Yet  it  is  not  a  higher  price  than 
a  skillful  architect  and  superintendent  should 
have  for  such  services.  There  is  plenty  of 
encouragement  for  young  architects.  The 
work  is  pleasant,  light  and  profitable.  Re- 
member that  there  is  always  room  at  the 
top,  that  the  demand  for  skilled  workmen  is 
constantly  increasing  and  that  it  is  the  class 
of  unskilled  workmen  who  are  the  most  un- 
employed. This  should  be  an  incentive  to 
every  student,  professional  man  and  trades- 
man to  aspire  to  higher  qualifications  and 
attainments  in  his  particular  line  of  business. 
Skill  and  talent  combined  with  practice  and 
experience  is  the  one  essential  qualification 
which  leads  to  success. 

We  trust  that  the  instructions  we  have 
given  in  this  work  will  serve  the  purpose  for 
which  they  were  intended  and  give  a  start  to 
those  seeking  information  that  will  event- 
ually bring  them  to  a  thorough  understand- 
ing and  successful  issue  on  the  subject  set 
forth. 

X^  OF  THE  r 

UNIVERSITY 


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